February 21, 2023

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UPDATED IN 13⋅06⋅2024

1. INTRODUCTION

Siderasis Angiosperms (SDa blog) is a a work developed with the objective of presenting, in a brief way, the diversity of angiosperms in South America, raising several points of analysis and discussion, distributed throughout the following pages.

SDa is largely based on Synopsis of South American Angiosperms (SSAA), a checklist of all South American native genera of angiosperms, organized by order, family, genera, and eventually by subfamilies, tribes, subtribes, and the genera, in hundreds of cases, are enunciated by valid subdivisions. SSAA is based on Vascular Plants of America (VPA), the most objective and clear list on the flora of the New World and, consequently, of South America, according to the APG group (SEEfor orders and families. The platform allows searching by geographic region and taxonomic group in a dynamic and highly productive.

However, as it is a very complex work and under construction, a lot of information on the platform conflicts with other major references or with specific works, generating distortions that make a more realistic analysis difficult. Constant updates to the VPA often remove distortions, but many still persist.

All data on taxa distribution and sizes in this blog follow the SSAA, however some data are obtained directly from the untreated VPA, which, when used, are explicitly cited in the text.

2. APG

APG circuscriptions of April 04, 2023 differs from APG IV, the last version published as article (Botanical Journal of Linnean Society, 2016) with 64 orders and 416 families, by fully recognition of Hydnoraceae, Taccaceae, Thismiaceae, Afrothismiaceae and Peltantheraceae, seven spliteds for Boraginaceae, six splited for Olacaceae, Tiganophtyaceae a new family, Mystropetalaceae dismembered of Balanophoraceae, and Wightiaceae dismembered of Carlemmaniaceae, plus three new orders: Desfontainiales, Oncothecales and Cardiopteridales. With the changes, the APG now recognizes 67 orders and 437 families.

It is very timely to mention the opinion article by Cole, T.H.C. (PeerJ, 2015), where he makes a strong criticism of the APG project.

H.-T. Li et al. (Nature Plants, 2019) - makes a great genetic analysis of data on the general structure of the classification of angiosperms, compares it with APG IV, although it brings only changes in the order sequence, without modifying them. Other classification in Angios Bergianska Website, by Jan Thomas Johansson, it is fantastic for the detailing, in plain text, of all the accepted genera in each family and its general distribution, sometimes even very detailed, and many easily accessible references.

Below we have the evolutionary trees of vascular plants as a whole, and then the evolutionary tree of angiosperms, focus of this blog, with 20 lineages at angiosperms: AMBORELLANAE, NYMPHAEANAE, AUSTROBAILEYANAE, CHLORANTHANAE, MAGNOLIANAE, LILIANAE, CERATOPHYLLANAE, RANUNCULANAE, PROTEANAE, TROCHODENDRANAE, BUXANAE, MYROTHAMNANAE, DILLENIANAE, SAXIFRAGANAE, VITANAE, ROSANAE, SANTALANAE, BERBERIDOPSIDANAE, CARYOPHYLLANAE and ASTERANAE.

Huipeng et al. (PRE-PRINT, 2023) suggests that the COM clade (Celastrales-Oxalidales-Malpighiales), currently considered part of Fabids, is actually independent of both Fabids and Malvids, being probably parallel to both.

PHYLOGENY OF LIVING EMBRIOPHYTES

ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY TREE, BI LI ET AL (BMC BIOLOGY, 2021)

3. GLOBAL NUMBERS

Christenhusz and Byng (Phytotaxa, 2016) lists of all families by APG IV with number of species each, with 308,312 are vascular plants, with 295,383 flowering plants (angiosperms; monocots: 74,273; eudicots: 210,008), and other groups: algae ca 44,000, liverworts ca 9,000, hornworts ca 225, mosses 12,700, lycopods 1,290, ferns 10,560 and gymnosperms 1,079. In 11.09.21 The Plant List - a united work including sources as Kew and MOBOT - showed exact 14,044 genera (SEE).

In June 13, 2024, there are 4,143¹ genera of angiosperms in South America (includes one lineages treated as genera but not properly named: Hybanthus thiemei group in Violaceae); in Brazil occurs 2,763¹ (355 endemics), and the other 1,380 are those that occur in South America but not in Brazil (which this site reports under the names 'unbrazilian' and their synonime neologism 'exxogenera', SEE). Among genera of angiosperms, Brazil has the second amount in World, after China (3,003, SEE).

According to the VPA, on September 22, 2022, Brazil had 34,780 spp. of vascular plants, being 1,206 of Monilophytes, 171 of Lycophytes, 24 of gymnosperms and the other 33,379 of angiosperms (SEE), followed, in last group, closely by China (29,716SEE).

4. ORDERS

APG recognizes 67 orders; South America has 57 of these, 53 in Brazil and 4 absents: Fagales, Desfontainiales, Berberidopsidales and Huertales; together, these four orders has 10 families, 16 genera and 46 spp. in continent.

5. FAMILIES

There are 437 families by APG, 284 in South America, 237 in Brazil; Brazil corresponds to 82.68% of families in South America and 54.04% of the world total; South America has 65.35% of the world's families. The table below shows the numbers of families by region.

DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES IN WORLD, SOUTH AMERICA, AND BRAZIL, WITH A CHECKLIST OF ALL UNBRAZILIAN FAMILIES IN SOUTH AMERICA
GROUP WORLD SOUTH AMERICA BRAZIL EXXOFAMILIES G/SPP IN SOUTH AMERICA
AMBORELLANAE
NYMPHAEANAE
AUSTROBAILEYANAE
CHLORANTHANAE
MAGNOLIANAE
27 17 15 ATHEROSPERMATACEAE
GOMORTEGACEAE
2/2
LILIANAE
80 51 44 ZOSTERACEAE
MELANTHIACEAE
CORSIACEAE
PHILESIACEAE
ASTELIACEAE
TECOPHILEACEAE
RESTIONACEAE
11/17
CERATOPHYLLANAE
RANUNCULANAE
PROTEANAE
TROCHODENDRANAE
BUXANAE
MYROTHAMNANAE
16 11 8 LARDIZABALACEAE
PAPAVERACEAE
NELUMBONACEAE
5/12
DILLENIANAE
VITANAE
SAXIFRAGANAE
17 8 5 GROSSULARIACEAE
SAXIFRAGACEAE
HAMAMELIDACEAE
7/59
ROSANAE/FABIDS
75 58 52 NOTHOFAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
MYRICACEAE
JUGLANDACEAE
BETULACEAE
CORIARIACEAE
11/28
ROSANAE/MALVIDS
60 34 27 ALZATEACEAE
TAPISCIACEAE
DIPENTODONTACEAE
CYTINACEAE
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
KOEBERLINIACEAE
TOVARIACEAE
7/19
SANTALANAE
BERBERIDOPSIDANAE
CARYOPHYLLANAE
54 35 28 MISODENDRACEAE
AEXTOXICACEAE
BERBERIDOPSIDACEAE
FRANKENIACEAE
HALOPHYTACEAE
MONTIACEAE
ANACAMPSEROTACEAE
14/120
ASTERANAE 108 70 58 POLEMONIACEAE
ACTINIDIACEAE
MITRASTEMONACEAE
HYDRANGEACEAE
CORNACEAE
TETRACHONDRACEAE
PELTANTHERACEAE
PHRYMACEAE
NAMACEAE
COLUMELIACEAE
PHYLLONOMACEAE
STYLIDIACEAE
25/130
437 284 237 83/445

Brazil has more families than Chile, Argentina, Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, and less of them than Colombia (252), Venezuela (243) and Peru (242), and ties with Bolivia (237).

The 'A - B' symbol used in table below (checklist of families in Brazil against their neighbors countries with more families) represents the number of native families in country A that do not occur in country B.

Worldwide Mexico has 254 (Almanaque Z), but the largest amount being for China, with 257 families (SEE).

COLOMBIA 252 237 BRAZIL

CL - BR = 27 (Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Myricaceae, Collumeliaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Tapisciaceae, Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae, Actinidiaceae, Grossulariaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Cytinaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Phyllonomaceae, Papaveraceae, Nelumbonaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Mitrastemonaceae, Alzateaceae, Phrymaceae, Peltantheraceae, Namaceae, Cornaceae, Tovariaceae, Coriariaceae and Tetrachondraceae).

BR - CL = 12 (Hydnoraceae, Calyceraceae, Canellaceae, Quillajaceae, Nartherciaceae, Francoaceae, Cistaceae, Sarraceniaceae, Gelsemiaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, Goodeniaceae and Griseliniaceae).

VENEZUELA 243  237 BRAZIL

VZ - BR = 18: (Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Myricaceae, Collumeliaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Tapisciaceae, Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae, Actinidiaceae, Grossulariaceae, Papaveraceae, Melanthiaceae, Namaceae, Phrymaceae, Cornaceae, Tovariaceae, Coriariaceae and Tetrachondraceae).

BR - VZ = 12: (Hydnoraceae, Calyceraceae, Lepidobotryceae, Francoaceae, Rhabdodendraceae, Strombosiaceae, Juncaginaceae, Griseliniaceae, Anisophylleaceae, Quillajaceae, Hydrophyllaceae and Gelsemiaceae).

PERU 242  237 BRAZIL

PR - BR = 22 (Tecophileaceae, Corsiaceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Myricaceae, Collumeliaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Tapisciaceae, Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae, Actinidiaceae, Grossulariaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Phyllonomaceae, Papaveraceae, Saxifragaceae, Alzateaceae, Peltantheraceae, Namaceae, Phrymaceae, Cornaceae, Tovariaceae, Coriariaceae and Frankeniaceae).

BR - PR = 17 (Thurniaceae, Quillajaceae, Tetrameristaceae, Cannellaceae, Cyrillaceae, Nartherciaceae, Griseliniaceae, Rhabdodendraceae, Peridiscaceae, Sarraceniaceae, Cymodoceaceae, Surianaceae, Cistaceae, Ixonanthaceae, Gelsemiaceae, Goodeniaceae and Euphroniaceae).

BOLIVIA 237  237 BRAZIL

BL - BR = 22 (Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Myricaceae, Collumeliaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae, Actinidiaceae, Grossulariaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Phyllonomaceae, Papaveraceae, Saxifragaceae, Koeberliniaceae, Alzateaceae, Phrymaceae, Peltantheraceae, Namaceae, Cornaceae, Tovariaceae, Frankeniaceae and Anacampserotaceae).

BR - BL = 22 (Cymodoceaceae, Thurniaceae, Taccaceae, Griseliniaceae, Lepidobotryceae, Nartherciaceae, Anisophylleaceae, Cannellaceae, Bonnetiaceae, Peridiscaceae, Euphroniaceae, Strombosiaceae, Sarraceniaceae, Quillajaceae, Goodeniaceae, Surianaceae, Cistaceae, Gelsemiaceae, Cyrillaceae, Rhabdodendraceae, Bataceae and Tetrameristaceae).

5.1 SOUTH AMERICA FAMILIES ABSENTS IN BRAZIL (
EXXOFAMILIES; UNBRAZILIAN FAMILIES)

South America has 49 unbrazilian families, together containing 83 genera and 445 spp. in continent, of which Conanthera, Zephyra (Tecophileaceae), Lapageria (Philesiaceae), Gomortega (Gomortegaceae), Pseudomonotes (Dipterocarpaceae), Schreiteria (Montiaceae), Halophytum (Halophytaceae), and Grahamia (Anacampserotaceae) are national endemisms.

10 of the exxofamilies have genera restricted to South America (Atherospermataceae, Gomortegaceae, Philesiaceae, Tecophylleaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Saxifragaceae, Nothofagaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Corsiaceae, and Collumeliaceae).

The largest speciose families in continent are Montiaceae (98), Brunelliaceae (61), Actinidiaceae (49), Grossulariaceae (51), Polemoniaceae (37), Hydrangeaceae (14), Phrymaceae (13), Nothofagaceae (10), Frankeniaceae (9), Dipentodontaceae (9), Tecophileaceae (9), Myricaceae (8), Misodendraceae (8), Saxifragaceae (7), Juglandaceae (6), Papaveraceae (5) and Collumeliaceae (5).

Zosteraceae and Berberidopsidaceae on the continent are restricted to Chile; Koeberliniaceae to Bolivia; Melanthiaceae to Venezuela; Nelumbonaceae, DipterocarpaceaeHamamelidaceae, FagaceaeCytinaceae and Mitrastemonaceae to Colombia. Gomortegaceae is endemic to Chile and Halophytaceae is endemic to Argentina.

NATIONAL ENDEMIC GENERA IN EXXOFAMILIES, SINGLE COUNTRY-CONTINENTALLY EXXOFAMILIES, AND ENDEMIC EXXOFAMILIES

Huge South American families absents in Brazil are the worldwide speciose Fagaceae (969), Papaveraceae (775), Dipterocarpaceae (695), Saxifragaceae, Actinidiaceae (448), Montiaceae (275), Polemoniceae and Grossulariaceae (192).  All exxofamilies has 3 or fewer genera in South America except Polemoniaceae (12), Montiaceae (7) and Saxifragaceae (5); 28 has only a single genus, 12 only two genera, three only three genera.

6. GENERA

96 Brazilian genera are underrepresented in country - with high representation in South America but very low in Brazil; 59 genera are hypercentered in the country; 88 genera are semiendemic - not endemic to Brazil but in our country they have only endemic species. For a complete and detailed list, see Odd Distributions in Brazil.

Brazilian largest genera are, via POWO (FEV 09, 2024, except Paepalanthus): Miconia (588), Eugenia (453), Myrcia (450), Mimosa (384), Croton (345), Piper (296), Solanum (281), Chamaecrista (278), Begonia (251), Paepalanthus (242), Paspalum (207) and Mikania (207).  

Brazil's 355 endemic genera correspond to 12.87% of the country's genera and 8.564% of the continental total; the 13 countries together on the continent totaled 633 national endemic genera (SEE), 56.082% of them Brazilian and together corresponding to 15.271% of the continental amount. Suriname and Uruguay do not have endemic genera. 59 families has endemic genera in Brazil (inc. Ehretiaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Sapotaceae, excluding Ximeniaceae and Anisophylleaceae), being the only country in the world with an endemic genera in Martyniaceae and Humiriaceae.

And it is the only one in South America (in addition to the three above) in:

Achariaceae, Annonaceae, Capparaceae, Cleomaceae, Commelinaceae, Connaraceae, Convolvulaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Iridaceae, Lauraceae, Ochnaceae, Orobanchaceae, Linderniaceae, Lythraceae, Salicaceae, Polygalaceae, Menispermaceae and Celastraceae.

27 famlies has endemic genera in a single country outher Brazil, mainly in Chile:

11 CHILE Aristolochiaceae, Campanulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Escalloniaceae, Francoaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Gomortegaceae, Phillesiaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Phytolacaceae, Tecophileaceae.
5 ARGENTINA Anacampserotaceae, Montiaceae, Halophytaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Calyceraceae.
3 PERU Costaceae, Muntingiaceae, Asparagaceae.
3 GUYANA Peridiscaceae, Passifloraceae, Erythropalaceae.
3 COLOMBIA Dipterocarpaceae, Vochysiaceae.
2 VENEZUELA Haemodoraceae, Xyridaceae.

6 families have endemic genera in more than one country in South America excluding Brazil. Argentina has the largest number of genera in country context, and Brassicaceae has the largest in family context - almost a fifth these genera are Brassicaceae genera endemics to Argentina.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE 2 1
ERICACEAE 2 1 2
BRASSICACEAE 4 3 8
LOASACEAE 2
RAPATEACEAE 2 4
VERBENACEAE 2 1
  8 5 10 2 2 5 1

Important groups without endemic genera in Brazil is Brassicaceae, Cyperaceae and Ericaceae. Brazil no has hyperendemic family (family that in the country is composed only of endemic genera), such as Dipterocarpaceae in Colombia.

NATIONAL HYPERENDEMIC FAMILIES IN SOUTH AMERICA

7. ENDEMISM IN SPECIES

In 45 native families, Brazil has no endemic species (c. 1/5 of national families)Consequently, Brazil has endemic species in 191 families. In at least three, Rhabdodendraceae, Microteaceae and Cabombaceae, is the only country in the world with such.

GROUP NUMBER FAMILIES
AMBORELLANAE - MAGNOLIANAE 1 Chloranthaceae.
LILIANAE 10 Ruppiaceae, Juncaginaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Nartherciaceae, Taccaceae, Haemodoraceae, Typhaceae, Mayacaceae, Thurniaceae and Strelitziaceae.
CERATOPHYLLANAE - MYROTHAMNANAE 2 Ceratophyllaceae and Buxaceae.
DILLENIANAE, SAXIFRAGANAE, VITANAE 2 Peridiscaceae and Crassulaceae.
ROSANAE 13 Zygophyllaceae, Quillajaceae, Surianaceae, Brunelliaceae, Euphroniaceae, Goupiaceae, Ixonanhthaceae, Apodanthaceae, Lepidobotryaceae, Muntigiaceae, Cistaceae, Bataceae and Staphylleaceae.
SANTALANAE, BERBERIDOPSIDANAE, CARYOPHYLLANAE 9 Coulaceae, Basellaceae, Aizoaceae, Talinaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Achatocarpaceae, Cyrillaceae and Tetrameristaceae.
ASTERANAE 8 Hydroleaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, Calceolariaceae, Stemonuraceae, Menyanthaceae, Goodeniaceae, Adoxaceae and Griseliniaceae.
ANGIOSPERM FAMILIES WITHOUT ENDEMIC SPECIES IN BRAZIL

LEVELS

For classifications below species level we use the following key (WCSPF):

1 Distribution range separate, gene flow absent or very restricted between the infraspecific populations and differing in characters that are significant for taxonomic species differentiation within the genus ........................................subsp.

1 Distribution ranges overlapping, gene flow possible and not differing in characters that are significant for taxonomic species differentiation within the genus ........................................2.

2 Populations separate........................................var.

2 Mixed populations present........................................f.

8. OTHER NOTES

In addition to the information above, we also highlight Rankings (SEE), a set of information on the diversity of South American flora analyzed under different aspects; for data on restrictions on Brazilian states, see by RESTRICTION or ENDEMISM.
 
By general notes for morphology, see Morphological Notes; several notes available in Almanaque Z blogspot for South American members of Lycophytes (SEE), Monilophytes (SEE), Gymnosperms (SEE), and Brazilian native members of Brassicaceae (Almanaque Z) and Caryophyllaceae (Almanaque Z). For an informal review of some groups, see Fagales in New World (Almanaque Z), Brassicaceae in New World (Almanaque Z), South American Poaceae (Almanaque Z) and New World Orchidaceae (Almanaque Z). 

9. MORE INFORMATIONS

Brazil has scarce diversity in many importante groups such as Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Amaranthaceae non Amaranthoideae. 
 
Points of high diversity are Rapateaceae in Venezuela, Magnoliacae, Arecaceae, Araceae, Heliconiaceae, Costaceae, Zingiberaceae, Brunnelliaceae, Gunneraceae, Ericaceae, Gesneriaceae, Campanulaceae and Cyclanthaceae in Colombia, Orchidaceae in Ecuador, Piperaceae, Alstroemeriaceae, Crassulaceae, Grossulariaceae and Amaryllidaceae in Peru, Brassicaceae and Calyceraceae in Argentina, Loasaceae in Chile; for Brazil, some high diversities belongs Monimiaceae, Lauraceae, Bromeliaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae and Lamiaceae. 

Morphologically, the largest absences in Brazil are mangroves Pelliciera (Colombia), carnivorous Pinguicula (Venezuela to Chile), holoparasitics Lennoa, Mitrastemon, Bdalophytum (Venezuela and Colombia) and Aphyllon (Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina), holomycotrophics Monotropa (Colombia), Degranvillea (French Guiana), Arachnitis, Tiputinia, Triuridopsis (Peru to Chile and Argentina), sea grasses Thallassia and Syringodium (Venezuela and Colombia) and dicot dissecation tolerant Bloosfeldia and Clinopodium (Bolivia, Argentina and Chile). 

Brazil lacks strongest smaller taxa such as Peruvian terrestrial nanoplants (Viola, Begonia, Lysipomia), and huge species such as Puya raimondii (Peru, Bolivia) and Ceroxylon quindiuense (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru); large-seed species like Mora (Fabaceae), Pelleciera (Tetrameristaceae) and Attelea (Arecaeae) from Colombia to Peru.

10. BRAZILIAN FORMATIONS nomenclature that we use in English for some Brazilian vegetation and relief formations.

igapó ‣ seasonally flooded forest (igapó).
caatinga ‣ dry seasonal scrubland of NE Brazil (caatinga).
cerrado ‣ savannas of C Brazil (cerrado).
campinaranas ‣ north-amazonic white-sand savannas (campinaranas).
campos rupestres ‣ rocky grasslands (campos rupestres).
campos de altitude ‣ high altitud grasslands (campos de altitude).
cangas ‣ rocky-ferriginous grasslands (cangas).
restingas ‣ Atlantic sandy coastal shrublands (restingas).
Pico da Neblina ‣ Neblina Massif.
Serra do Aracá  Aracá Massif.
11. CONTACT for contact use the form on the sidebar on the right.

TERESINA, PIAUÍ, BRAZIL

February 20, 2023

PUBLICATIONS AND IMAGES

UPDATED IN 20.02.2023

1 PUBLICATIONS for publications about botany, mainly taxonomy, we have a wide range of references:

Phytotaxa
PhytoKeys
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
Taxon
Systematic and Biodiversity
Novon
Brittonia
Kew Bulletin
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
Systematic Botany
Nordic Journal of Botany
Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
Havard Papers in Botany

Acta Botanica Brasilica
Biota Neotropica
Rodriguesia

Lankesteriana
Webbia
CANDOLEA

American Journal of Botany
Peerj
Edinburgh Journal of Botany
Peerj - Plant Sciene Taxonomy
Feddes Repertorium
Phytologia

Willdenowia
Bradleya

Lilloa
Darwiniana
Caldasia

Neodiversity
PlantNow

Plant Diversity
Aquatic Botany
Molecular Plant
Organisms Diversity & Evolution
Rheedea
Hacquetia
Adansonia
Plant Ecology and Evolution
Plant and Fungal Systematics
The Botanical Review
Brazilian Journal of Botany
European Journal of Taxonomy
International Journal of Plant Sciences

Aroideana
Taiwania

2 IMAGE SOURCES

2.1 SINGLE-GROUP LINKS


Euphorbia PBI (Euphorbia)
Euphorbia nos EUA (Euphorbia)
Malpighiaceae Genera (Malpighiaceae)

Malvaceae Info (Malvaceae)

MelNet (Melastomataceae)

Calió, 2013 (Gentianaceae)

Cole & Tolke (Apocynaceae)

67° CNBOT (Loasaceae)

NYBG/Lecythidaceae (Lecythidaceae)

CactiGuide (Cactaceae)

Martine Deshoges - PDF (Taxonomy of Cactaceae)

Caryophyllaels (Caryophyllales)

Pilger (Santalaceae)

Gymnosperm Database (Gymnosperms)

 

2.2 OTHER INTERACTIVE CHECKLISTS

 
2. FloraBase of the Western Australia a beauty work at Western Australia flora.


2.3 IMAGE DATABANKS

iNaturalist - repository of photos from different authors validated by peer recognition, rarely from herbarium, which includes animals, plants and fungi from all over the world; source of rare images and some unpublished on the open search of Google with searches allowed at various taxonomic levels and even by popular names! It has the disadvantage of, in some groups, an excess of samples cultivated in gardens and orchards.

SpeciesLink - remarkable Brazilian database dealing with animals, plants and fungi with records in herbaria or not; the search can be refined by living material and botanical family, which leads to incredible images, a good part of photo libraries, some of species that are not seen on the open internet - since the images on the platform are not traceable by Google. It rarely includes cultivated, garden, or anthropized types.

NEOTROPICAL PLANTS - IMAGE DATABASE KEW - images of various groups, mainly taken in Mato Grosso and Minas Gerais (but also Panama, Bolivia and Peru), organized by family; a disadvantage is few images per species, sometimes just a detail of the plant.

Flora de Santa Catarina - excellent work that has been showing the world a surprising diversity in this beautiful Brazilian state; many images with low contrast; includes many species in anthropic environments. It has already supported botanical publications

FLORA DIGITAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL - records of plants collected in Rio Grande do Sul; unfortunately most are of poor quality.

FLORA DIGITAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL E SANTA CATARINA - blogspot apparently abandoned, with many records of plants from southern Brazil.

Álbuns de Alex Popovkin - very detailed collection of numerous plants (and also animals) from the Atlantic Forest in northeastern Bahia, some of excellent quality. It has already supported botanical publications. 

Flore de Guyane - from French Guiana; some images with unfavorable lighting but on average second best page to view after SpeciesLink; offers the invaluable advantage of chronologically organized posts.

La Chaussette Rouge - one of the richest easy-access pages in the French Guiana Amazon; navigation without bureaucracy, but not chronologically organized. 
 
Guia Igapó - brings many records of plants collected in the upper Rio Negro, Amazonas, but few bring the plant in a natural environment, and it seems abandoned.
 
Paraguay Biodiverso - light and remarkable page with beautiful records from the Chaco country; it sins for having many unidentified taxons. 

Fotos de Flora Nativa e Adventícias de Uruguay - showing with high quality several species from the neighboring platine country; brings records in Uruguay of three families that do not occur in Brazil: Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae and Papaveraceae.

2.4 TROPHISMS

Ladim - site about Brazilian carnivorous plants, from USP university. 

2.5 PHOTO CATALOG

Phytoimages - spectacular in natura photo catalog, although not synced with APG IV. 

PlantSystematic - very similiar to link above.

Flora of the World - shows pictures of plants from all over the world, organized by family. 

Ukrbin - page of Ukrainian origin, brings many excellent images from various parts of the world, especially E Europe, but few in South America. 

Botany.cz/Venezuela, Roraima - several images for plants of E Venezuela region. 

Roraima Tepui - some images of plants in Mount Roraima in Venezuela.

2.6 EXPEDITIONS

Bromeliário Imperialis - promotes expeditions in eastern Brazil, especially in Bahia state; good source of Bromeliaceae images. 

Vertical Garden - Patric Blanc - one of the largest panels of beautiful botanical images in existence; focused on species in their original habitat across the planet.

Expedição Fitogeográfica - makes expeditions throughout South America, especially in the Center-South region of the country; little precision in species identification.

Fábio Colombini - a remarkable album of extremely beautiful Brazilian landscapes, but it does not have identifications and seals the images with an immense watermark.

VIRBOGA - brings many interesting images from around the world; in the case of Brazil, it has a great focus on the Northeast, but includes many anthropized records; also has a watermark.