1 EXXOTAXA
Any group of species that occurs natively in South America but not natively in Brazil. Ex.: exxospecies (Koeberlinia spinosa), exxogenera (Matucana), exxofamily (Cornaceae).
2 PROBLEMATICS
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (Poaceae), the only Arundinoideae in South America, is cited by the VPA as native to all regions of the New World covered by the platform except Brazil (SEE); Reflora lists it as naturalized (SEE), and POWO also considers it naturalized (SEE). Why does this genus have such a strange distribution? For images of populations in French Guiana, see La Chaussette Rouge.
Does Spiranthes Rich. (Orchidaceae) really occur in French Guiana (POWO)?
Is Thismia americana N.Pfeiff. (Burmanniaceae) a fraud? Wilhelm & Rericha (The Great Lakes Botanist, 2018) discuss this hypothesis without reaching a final verdict; if confirmed, it would be an astonishing fraud and one of the largest in modern botany.
Do Cantua megapotamica Spreng. (Polemoniaceae, POWO) and Juglans brasiliensis Dode (Juglandaceae, POWO), supposedly Brazilian species, really exist?
3 BRAZILIAN NATURAL NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature that we use in English for some Brazilian vegetation and relief formations.
igapó ‣ seasonally flooded forest (igapó).
caatinga ‣ dry seasonal scrubland of NE Brazil (caatinga).
cerrado ‣ savannas of C Brazil (cerrado).
campinaranas ‣ north-amazonic white-sand savannas (campinaranas).
campos rupestres ‣ rocky grasslands (campos rupestres).
campos de altitude ‣ high altitud grasslands (campos de altitude).
cangas ‣ rocky-ferruginous grasslands (cangas).
restingas ‣ Atlantic sandy coastal shrublands (restingas).
Pico da Neblina ‣ Mount Neblina.
Serra do Aracá ‣ tepui Aracá.
4 SPECIES OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN
Some species are known only in their cultivated or invasive form (such as Brugmansia, which will be mentioned later), or only from collections without a recorded origin. Examples include Opuntia leoglossa Font & M.Köhler (Köhler & Font, Phytotaxa, 2021) in Cactaceae, known only from invasive populations in Australia and Spain.
5 HISTORICAL PLANTS
Wood from Calophyllum brasiliense Cambess. (Calophyllaceae), widespread across the tropical New World, was used exclusively in the production of masts and crossjacks for ships. Therefore, it became the country's first hardwood regulated by law, on January 7th, 1835 (Eduzz).
Drosera magnifica Rivadavia & Gonella (Droseraceae), endemic to Minas Gerais state, is the first plant species recorded as being discovered through photographs on a social network, representing a remarkable new species of sundew from Brazil (Guinness World Records).
6 LONGEST AUTOR NAME
Perhaps the species with the largest text by authors among South American angiosperms is
Heliamphora ceracea Nerz, Wistuba, Grantsau, Rivadavia, A.Fleischm. & S.McPherson
7 REMARKABLE CITATIONS
Lindley (1849) described Lagenanthus princeps (Gentianaceae, Venezuela and Colombia, POWO) as 'one of the noblest plants in existence' (Gentian Research Network).
Judziewicz and Soderstrom, in 1990, described Glaziophyton mirabile Franch. (Poaceae) as the 'oddest bamboo in the world' (see Fernandez et al., Checklist, 2012).
According to Lytton J. Musselman, Hydnoraceae (now included in Aristolochiaceae) are 'the strangest plants in the world!' (Neotropical Hydnoraceae).
Ducke wrote of Aguiaria excelsa (Malvaceae, endemic to the Rio Negro basin): 'I am not aware of a similar seed chamber in any other plant species' (Cardoso et al., Neodiversity, 2015).
8 TYPE GENERA IN SOUTH AMERICA
Many genera native to South America, particularly Brazil, are the type genera of their respective families and orders. Rather than listing them here, we focus on the non-native genera that serve as type genera in the South American flora.
Type genus of its order (but not of its family) ‣ Huertea.
Type genera of their families (but not of their orders; 8) ‣ Morus, Hydrangea, Haloragis, Francoa, Loasa, Primula, Goodenia, and Calycera (only the first two occur in Colombia).
Type genera of both their families and orders (11) ‣ Gentiana, Buxus, Vitis, Metteniusa, Cornus, Malpighia, Santalum, Berberidopsis, Cucurbita, Saxifraga, and Canella (the first six occur in Colombia).
9 INFRASPECIFIC NOMENCLATURE
Here we provide a key to the infraspecific categories that may occasionally be used throughout this blog (WCSPF).
1 Distribution ranges separate, with gene flow absent or very limited between populations, and populations differing in diagnostic characters ............. subsp.
1 Distribution ranges overlapping, with gene flow possible between populations ..................................................................................................................... 2
2 Populations geographically or ecologically distinct ............................................................................................................................................ var.
2 Populations intermixed ........................................................................................................................................................................................... f.
10 BOTANICS IS DYNAMIC
2,875 angiosperm species were described from Brazil between 1990 and 2006 (Sobral & Stehmann, Taxon, 2009).
Many genera have recently been merged into others, resulting in numerous new combinations within their respective families, e.g. Hyptis.
Conversely, many genera have been expanded by incorporating a series of others, e.g. Miconia.
Major taxonomic changes have occurred in several groups, for example the Androlepis Alliance in Bromelioideae (Ramírez-Díaz, J. Bromeliad Soc., 2019), the Ocotea complex in Lauraceae (Penagos Zuluaga et al., American Journal of Botany, 2021), Lobelioideae in Campanulaceae (Kagame et al., PhytoKeys, 2021), and the Espeletia clade in Asteraceae (Mavárez, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2021).
Particularly noteworthy is the study by Chen et al. (Phytotaxa, 2015), which described 18 spp. in a family that previously comprised only 53 spp. The authors suggested that Anisophylleaceae is among the least-known angiosperm families. Likewise, Moonlight et al. (Taxon, 2018) showed that Begonia L. experienced the greatest increase in described species among flowering-plant genera, with 341 spp. described over a ten-year period. Among the study's interesting findings is the estimate that approximately 300 additional Begonia spp. remain to be described in Borneo alone.
Perhaps the most unusual case of taxonomic description in South America is Archivea Christenson & Jenny (Orchidaceae), a genus believed to be endemic to Brazil and known only from a watercolor (Wikimedia) dated 1823 and preserved in the archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. This remarkable circumstance inspired the name of its only species, Archivea kewensis Christenson & Jenny, as explained by Boyce (Malayan Nature Journal, 2011). Nothing is known about its distribution, and Whitten (American Journal of Botany, 2000) suggested that it may belong to the subtribe Stanhopeinae, although it is also possible that the watercolor represents an inaccurate illustration. Regarding the author of the watercolor, T. Duncanson, SDa found no available information.
Species concepts vary considerably among taxonomic groups, reaching perhaps their greatest complexity in Hieracium L. (Asteraceae). POWO lists 4,566 spp. (SEE), making it the largest genus of flowering plants under that treatment. K. Kubitzki (vol. VIII, 2007), however, estimated only c. 60–1,000 spp. A similar situation occurs in Taraxacum Weber (Asteraceae), with 2,421 spp. recognized by the platform, whereas Richard (New Phytologist, 1970) recognized only about 60 macrospecies. Here we follow the numbers adopted by POWO.
11 NOTES IN RARITY
The occurrence of a species in a given geographic context depends on its distribution area, the size of its population and the specificity of the habitats; the table below, whose reference was not accurately detected, illustrates the 8 possible scenarios of occurrence of a plant.
|
POPULATION SIZED |
| SMALL |
LONGER |
| RANGE |
LONGER |
Low Density
Longer Range
Many Habitats
|
Common |
Low Density
Longer Range
Specific Habitats
|
High Density
Longer Range
Specific Habitat
|
| SMALL |
Restricted Range
Low Density
Many Habitats
|
Restricted Range
High Density
Many Habitats
|
Restricted Range
Low Density
Specific Habitats
|
Restricted Range
High Density
Specific Habitats
|
A plant may be considered rare because it has been collected only a few times, or because it is represented by many individuals but occupies an extremely restricted area. SDa considers the orchid Archivea kewensis Christenson & Jenny to be the rarest plant in Brazil; for details supporting this statement, see Miscellany-E. According to Plantas Raras do Brasil (UEFS, BOOK, 2009), at least another 370 species are known only from their type material, many of which have not been collected for decades or even centuries; according to SDa, all are tied as the second rarest plants in the country. Searching for the term "individual" in the above-mentioned book reveals several angiosperms in extremely critical situations. Peritassa sadleri Lombardi (Celastraceae, Espírito Santo) and Symplocos microstyla Aranha, P.W.Fritsch & Almeda (Symplocaceae, Minas Gerais) are known from only two individuals each, whereas Schultesia piresiana E.F.Guim. & Fontella (Gentianaceae, Bahia) and Chionanthus greenii Lombardi (Oleaceae, Minas Gerais) are known from only a single individual. Another remarkable case is Andreadoxa flava Kallunki (Rutaceae), the sole species of its genus, reported from only one wild individual by Sambuichi (Artigos Técnico-Scientíficos Natureza & Conservação, 2008), at the Centro de Estudo do Cacau, Bahia state (CNC Flora). In terms of occupied area, noteworthy examples include Prosopanche caatingicola R.F.Machado & L.P.Queiroz (Aristolochiaceae), known from only 200 m² in Bahia state (Machado & Paganucci, Phytotaxa, 2012), and Phyllanthus eremitus Funez & Hassemer (Phyllanthaceae), known from fewer than 30 individuals occupying just 10 m² in Santa Catarina state (Flora de Santa Catarina). According to the same book, some species are known only from cultivation, including Begonia aconitifolia A.DC. (Begoniaceae), Ruehssia carvalhoi (Morillo & Carnevali) F.Esp.Santo & Rapini (treated there as Marsdenia, Apocynaceae), Sinningia helleri Nees, and S. leucotricha (Hoehne) H.E.Moore (Gesneriaceae). None of these species is currently included in the IUCN Red List.
In a broader analysis at the generic level, it is worth considering the density of species belonging to the same taxonomic group within a given area. Two particularly remarkable cases can be highlighted. The first concerns the number of species in a family / 10,000 km², compared among countries or other political units. Among countries, states, or other territorial units larger than 40,000 km², the highest known value is probably that of Orchidaceae in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, with 〜164, followed by Ecuador with 〜148. The second concerns the density of species within a single genus. One of the most remarkable examples is the concentration of 175 spp. of Erica within less than 625 km² in the SW Cape, South Africa (Oliver, Linder, & Rourke, Bothalia, 1983).
For rare species in Brazil, the reference Plantas Raras do Brasil (UEFS, BOOK, 2009) lists 2,291 species, defined as those with a distribution area smaller than 10,000 km² and occurring in two or more watersheds.
Silva et al. (PeerJ, 2019) evaluated the distribution of 3,272 seed-plant species endemic to Brazil with distribution ranges smaller than 10,000 km². Their dataset was primarily based on the national catalogue of rare plant species in Brazil. The authors intersected the occurrence records of these restricted-range species with fifth-order watersheds mapped by the Brazilian government at a scale of 1:250,000 and excluded 918 species occurring in more than one watershed, resulting in a final dataset of 2,354 microendemic species.
12 REMARKABLE DISJUNCTIONS
In SDa searches, the most comprehensive work on biogeographic disjunctions is that of Thorne (Chicago Journals, 1972), who recognized sixteen categories and 34 subcategories of intercontinental disjunct distribution patterns. Below are some of the disjunction patterns commonly found among South American genera.
South America ✕ Africa — according to Sytsma et al. (Int. J. Plant Sci, 2004), of the approximately 12 angiosperm families exhibiting the striking amphi-Atlantic disjunct pattern restricted to the Americas and Africa, eight are essentially American families (e.g., Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, Caricaceae, Humiriaceae, Loasaceae, Mayacaceae, Rapateaceae, and Vochysiaceae), with ca. 3,500 species in the Americas compared with just over 10 in Africa (Thorne, 1973). Molecular phylogenetic analyses of Rapateaceae have conclusively shown that the single African genus, Maschalocephalus, originated recently (late Miocene) through long-distance dispersal. Similar recent origins have been proposed for the African representatives of Bromeliaceae and Mayacaceae, and perhaps for the remaining members of these eight families.
The most remarkable disjunction among angiosperms, according to this blog, is Pitcairnia feliciana (A. Chev.) Harms & Mildbr., the only African species among more than 3,000 bromeliads and arguably the most remarkable plant in Guinea; for images of the species in its natural habitat, see Raiwen/Flickr.
13 NEAREST GENERA FOR BRAZIL
Many of the c. 1,380 South American genera absent from Brazil occur near Brazil's borders; among the most notable are Asterogyne (Arecaceae, Brittonia), Brasenia (Cabombaceae, Darwiniana), Jasarum (Araceae, GBIF), Pakaraimaea (Cistaceae, PlosOne), Achlyphila (Xyridaceae, NYBG, p12), Pyrrorhiza (Haemodoraceae, PhytoKeys), Pseudomonotes (Dipterocarpaceae, GBIF), Yasunia (Lauraceae, SEE), Steinbachiella (Fabaceae, SEE), Sarcotoxicum (Capparaceae, GBIF), Caa (Apocynaceae, Lilloa), and Argemone (Papaveraceae, Brittonia, p. 99).
14 SELECTED DIVERSITY NOTES IN NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES
Brazil has relatively low diversity in several important groups, such as Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and the non-Amaranthoideae members of Amaranthaceae.
Major centers of diversity in South America include Rapateaceae in Venezuela; Magnoliaceae, Arecaceae, Araceae, Heliconiaceae, Costaceae, Zingiberaceae, Brunelliaceae, Gunneraceae, Ericaceae, Gesneriaceae, Campanulaceae, and Cyclanthaceae in Colombia; Orchidaceae in Ecuador; Piperaceae, Alstroemeriaceae, Crassulaceae, Grossulariaceae, and Amaryllidaceae in Peru; Brassicaceae and Calyceraceae in Argentina; and Loasaceae in Chile. In Brazil, particularly high levels of diversity are found in Monimiaceae, Lauraceae, Bromeliaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae, and Lamiaceae.
From a morphological perspective (and within South America), some of the most notable absences from the Brazilian flora include the mangrove Pelliciera (Colombia); the carnivorous Pinguicula (Venezuela to Chile); the holoparasites Lennoa, Mitrastemon, and Bdallophytum (Venezuela and Colombia), and Aphyllon (Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina); the holomycotrophic Monotropa (Colombia), Degranvillea (French Guiana), Arachnitis, Tiputinia, and Triuridopsis (Peru to Argentina and Chile); the seagrasses Thalassia and Syringodium (Venezuela and Colombia); and the desiccation-tolerant dicots Blossfeldia and Clinopodium (Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile). Brazil also lacks records of the Peruvian terrestrial nanoplants Viola, Begonia, and Lysipomia, as well as giant species such as Puya raimondii (Peru and Bolivia) and Ceroxylon quindiuense (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru). Likewise absent are large-seeded genera such as Mora (Fabaceae), Pelliciera (Tetrameristaceae), and Attalea (Arecaceae), occurring from Colombia to Peru.
15 NON NATIVE NOTES AT SOUTH AMERICA
A page dedicated to alien and invasive flora, whether species introduced into South America from other regions or South American species invading other parts of the world. For a classification of non-native species according to their origin, impact, and degree of establishment, an excellent reference is Pyšek et al. (Taxon, 2004), from which the diagram below was adapted. For information on alien plants in Brazil, see RD Zenni (Rodriguésia, 2015).
BRAZILIAN SPECIES INVADING OTHER COUNTRIES
Chapman et al. | Gymnocoronis spilanthoides DC. (OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 2017) – documents the spread of G. spilanthoides (Asteraceae, native to southern South America) throughout the Old World.
CABI | Eichhornia crassipes (LINK) – summarizes the invasive and highly damaging nature of this South American aquatic species in many regions of the world, including historical records.
A. Rimac et al. | The Brazilian elodea (Egeria densa Planch.) invasion reaches Southeast Europe (BioInvasions Records, 2018) – documents the invasion of Croatian rivers by Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae).
EXOTIC SPECIES INVADING THE NEW WORLD
Alves & Roque (Check List, 2016) – first record of the African Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq. (Asteraceae) in South America (Bom Jesus da Lapa, Bahia state, Brazil).
Barbosa M.L., Alves M. & Roque N. (Rodriguésia, 2022) – first record of Heterosperma (H. ovatifolium Cav., Asteraceae) for Brazil, collected in Piatã municipality, Bahia state.
Alves et al. (Check List, 2013) – first report of the naturalization of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Saururaceae) in Brazil, established in Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro state.
Barcelos & Heiden – first record of the African Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench (Asteraceae) in South America (Canguçu and Pinheiro Machado municipalities, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil).
F. M. Florâncio et al. (Aquatic Botany, 2021) – detailed account of Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle in the Itaipu Reservoir (Brazil and Paraguay).
Antar et al. (Webbia, 2022) – first record of Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae) naturalized in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
16 CONSERVATION OF SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS
According to the IUCN Red List (SEE, in 12 OCT 2021), 12 angiosperm species from South America are classified as extinct (EX), representing 11 genera. Most belong to Sapotaceae and Myrtaceae (7 of the 12 species). Listed below under their currently accepted names are: .
Sicyos villosus Hook.f. (Galapagos)
Blutaparon rigidum (A.St.-Hil.) Mears (Galapagos)
Delilia inelegans (Hook.f.) Kuntze (Galapagos)
Mida fernandeziana (Phil.) Sprague (Juan Fernández Islands, Chile)
Arachis rigonii Krapov. & W.C.Greg.(Bolivia)
Pradosia mutisii Cronquist (Colombia to NW Peru)
Casearia quinduensis Tul. (Colombia to Peru)
Campomanesia lundiana (Kiaersk.) Mattos (Brazil)
Chrysophyllum januariense Eichler (Brazil)
Myrcia neocambessedeana E.Lucas & Sobral (Brazil)
Pradosia glaziovii (Pierre) T.D.Penn. (Brazil)
Pouteria stenophylla Baehni (Brazil)
According to the IUCN, another 10 South American angiosperms are classified as extinct in the wild (EW), surviving only in cultivation.
Brugmansia Pers. (Solanaceae), a genus regarded by the IUCN as known exclusively from cultivated plants, includes 7 spp., with no confirmed herbarium records of wild individuals. According to the IUCN, the genus is endemic to South America, with five species restricted to the western part of the continent, from Colombia to Chile:
B. arborea (L.) Lagerh. (IUCN).
B. aurea Lagerh. (IUCN).
B. sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D.Don (IUCN).
B. versicolor Lagerh. (IUCN).
B. vulcanicola (A.S.Barclay) R.E.Schult. (IUCN).
B. insignis (Barb.Rodr.) Lockwood ex R.E.Schult. (Colombia and Brazil, IUCN).
B. suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Sweet (possibly endemic to the forests of NE Brazil IUCN).
However, because no wild herbarium specimens are known for these species, these distributions cannot be confirmed, and most taxonomic sources, including the VPA, do not recognize Brugmansia as native to Brazil. This website follows Dupin & Smith (Taxon, 2018), recognizing only five species.
Senecio leucopeplus Cabrera (Argentina, IUCN).
Sophora toromiro (Phil.) Skottsb. (Easter Island, Chile, IUCN).
Terminalia acuminata (Allemão) Eichler (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, IUCN; from . For the latter species, however, recent reports of wild individuals are currently under evaluation (Wikiparks).
17 REMARKABLE PLANT SPECIES WORLDWIDE
Bulbophyllum nocturnum J.J.Verm., de Vogel, Schuit. & A.Vogel (Orchidaceae), from New Britain, Papua New Guinea, is the first orchid known to flower consistently at night and to close its flowers during the day (Wikipedia).
Paris japonica Franch. (Melanthiaceae), endemic to Japan, has the largest known plant genome, with about 150 billion base pairs (Wikipedia).
Sedum suaveolens Kimnach (Crassulaceae), from Mexico, with n > 320, has the highest chromosome number known among flowering plants (Mota et al., NCBI, 2016).
Pilea cavernicola A.K.Monro (Urticaceae), endemic to southern China, is possibly the world's most shade-tolerant plant, surviving under only c. 0.04–2.78% of full daylight (Monro et al., NCBI, 2012).
Clerodendrum kamhyoae Phillipson & L.Allorge (Lamiaceae), endemic to Madagascar, is one of the most spectacular cauliflorous plants known (SEE).
According to Judd (Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1984), the tallest Ericaceae in the New World belong to Agarista D.Don, occurring from Mexico to North America.
Despite the appearance, Besleria macropoda Donnell Smith (Gesneriaceae) from Costa Rica is not a true epiphylly (Berger et al., Phytotaxa, 2015).
18 ENDEMIC WEEDS?
Rhaphiodon echinus Schauer (Lamiaceae) is a prostrate herb known from northeastern Brazil and some adjacent areas in the southeastern and central-western regions. This species has been controversially considered a weed in some parts of its distribution range (Alves, Dissertation, 2019 | Moreira, Campinas/SP, 2011 | Global Compendium of Weeds). If this status is confirmed, it could be considered the only weed belonging to an endemic genus in Brazil.
19 DIVERSITY OF PLANTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
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MEXICO
The country has, by Villaseñor (Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad, 2016), 23,314 spp., distributed in 2,854 genera, 297 families, and 73 orders. Based on this source, but with numbers of VPA, the five families in Mexico are in table below. The genera with more than 170 spp. in Mexico are only Sedum (Crassulaceae, 382), Salvia (Lamiaceae, 335), Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae, 246), Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae, 243), Agave (Asparagaceae, 208), Quercus (Fagaceae, 177) and Mammillaria (Cactaceae, 173).
Mexico has at least 2,885 native tree species, belonging to 612 genera and 128 families. Fabaceae is the most represented family and Quercus the most represented genus. Approximately 44% of tree species are endemic to the country. The southern part of the country showed the highest values of species richness. Six hundred and seventy-four species have at least one documented human use (Tellez et al., PeerJ, 2020). Five families occur in the US, but not in Mexico: Calycanthaceae, Stemonaceae, Balsaminaceae, Limnanthaceae and Stemonuraceae.
Mexico has 46 families of Angiosperms that do not occur in Brazil, 27 occur in South America¹, and 19 do not²:
¹ Tovariaceae, Phyllonomaceae, Coriariaceae, Nelumbonaceae, Mitrastemonaceae, Actinidiaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Tapisciaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Melanthiaceae, Grossulariaceae, Juglandaceae, Saxifragaceae, Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Polemoniaceae, Cornaceae, Koeberliniaceae, Tetrachondraceae, Zosteraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Frankeniaceae, Papaveraceae, Phrymaceae, Buxaceae, Myricaceae, Montiaceae.
² Setchellanthaceae, Sarcobataceae, Fouquieriaceae, Simmondsiaceae, Crossosomataceae, Stegnospermataceae, Guamatelaceae, Plocospermataceae, Ticodendraceae, Resedaceae, Datiscaceae, Paeoniaceae, Saururaceae, Platanaceae, Schisandraceae, Liliaceae, Garryaceae, Altingiaceae, Iteaceae.
In contrast, 26 Brazilian families do not occur in Mexico: Tofieldiaceae, Nartheciaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Velloziaceae, Rapateaceae, Thurniaceae, Strelitziaceae, Anisophylleaceae, Humiriaceae, Peridiscaceae, Lepidobotryaceae, Quillajaceae, Euphroniaceae, Goupiaceae, Caryocaraceae, Ixonanthaceae, Bonnetiaceae, Vivianiaceae, Rhabdodendraceae, Tetrameristaceae, Sarraceniaceae, Cardiopteridaceae, Stemonuraceae, Calyceraceae, Escalloniaceae, Griseliniaceae.
GUIANAS
GUIANAS ‣ The three Guyana countries together have 64 genera that do not occur in Brazil. None represent an absent family in Brazil; for very detailed maps off all most important sites of botanic collections in Guyana, see Hoffman (Smithsonian Plant Collection, 2014); endemic genera marked in bold. For trees from French Guiana, see Molino J.F. et al. (Adansonia, 2022), who lists 1,811 spp. in 421 genera at 87 families.
GUYANA (51) ‣ Brasenia (Cabombaceae), Chlorocardium (Lauraceae), Jasarum (Araceae), Chaubardiella, Sievekingia, Gomphihis, Eloyella, Oliveriana, Teuscheria (Orchidaceae), Potarophyton, Windsorina (Rapateaceae), Rhynchocladium (Cyperaceae, GBIF), Lutheria (Bromeliaceae), Phragmites (Poaceae), Maburea (Erythropalaceae), Whittonia (Peridiscaceae), Ceratostema (Ericaceae), Chorisepalum, Enicostema, Rogersonanthus (Gentianaceae), Didymochlamys, Duidania, Etericius, Erithalis, Maguireothamnus, Pteridocalix, Wittmackanthus, Merumea (Rubiaceae), Christopheria, Lampadaria, Pagothyra, Roogeton, Kohleria, Crantzia (Gesneriaceae), Condylidium, Quelchia (Asteraceae), Pseudanamomis (Myrtaceae), Maguireanthus, Ochthephilus (GBIF), Boyania, Phainatha, Tryssophytum, Pterogastra (Melastomataceae), Loxopterigyum (Anacardiaceae), Pakaraimaea (Cistaceae), Guaiacum (Zygophyllaceae), Dystovomita, Thysanostemon (Clusiaceae, GBIF), Pibiria (Passifloraceae, SEE), Neosprucea (Salicaceae), Senefelderopsis (Euphorbiaceae).
SURINAME (16) ‣ Chlorocardium (Lauraceae), Teuscheria, Chamelophyton, Degranvillea, Chaubardiella, Sievekingia (Orchidaceae), Lutheria (Bromeliaceae), Phragmites (Poaceae), Buxus (Buxaceae, GBIF), Chorisepalum (Gentianaceae), Kohleria, Lembocarpus, Pagothyra (Gesneriaceae), Megaskepasma (Acanthaceae), Loxopterigyum (Anacardiaceae), Guaiacum (Zygophyllaceae).
FRENCH GUIANA (19) ‣ Brasenia (Cabombaceae), Asterogyne (Arecaceae), Chamelophyton, Degranvillea, Spiranthes, Chauberadiella, Sievekingia (Orchidaceae), Lutheria (Bromeliaceae), Phragmites (Poaceae), Garciemoriana (Apocynaceae), Christopheria, Cremersia, Pagothyra, Kohleria, Lembocarpus (Gesneriaceae), Russelia (Plantaginaceae), Loxopterigyum (Anacardiaceae), Amyris (Rutaceae), Hekkingia (Violaceae).
GUYANA/SURINAME (3) ‣ Chlorocardium (Lauraceae), Chorisepalum (Gentianaceae), Guaiacum (Zygophyllaceae)
GUYANA/FRENCH GUIANA (2) ‣ Brasenia (Cabombaceae), Christopheria (Gesneriaceae).
SURINAME/FRENCH GUIANA (3) ‣ Chamelophyton, Degranvillea (Orchidaceae), Lembocarpus (Gesneriaceae).
GU/SR/FG (7) ‣ Chauberadiella, Sievekingia (Orchidaceae), Lutheria (Bromeliaceae), Phragmites (Poaceae), Kohleria, Pagothyra (Gesneriaceae), Loxopterygium (Anacardiaceae).
VENEZUELA
By Stefano (Candollea, 2009) 275 families, 2,480 genera and 15,820 species of vascular plants in the country, a total that encompasses 2,964 endemic species, representing 18.7% of the country’s vascular plant species. Total number of families, genera and species for the main vascular plant groups in Venezuela
The ten largest vascular plants families in Venezuela:
Although the total number of endemic species in Venezuela is 3,056, however, the list in above includes only the species endemic to each region, for a total of 2,994 species. Estimated number of vascular plant species and endemics in the four main geographical regions of Venezuela, in relation to the total number of taxa in each region:
Endemic genera from Venezuela by region*:
Venezuela Guayana ‣ Salpinctes (Apocynaceae), Achnopogon, Chimantaea, Duidaea, Huberopappus, Quelchia, Siapaea, Tuberculocarpus, Tyleropappus (Asteraceae), Brewcaria, Steyerbromelia (Bromeliaceae), Mycerinus, Tepuia (Ericaceae), Celianella (Phyllanthaceae), Neblinantha, Sipapoantha (Gentianaceae), Pyrrorhiza (Haemodoraceae), Uladendron (Malvaceae), Mallophyton (Melastomataceae), Aracamunia (Orchidaceae), Amphiphyllum, Kunhardtia, Marahuacaea, Phelpsiella (Rapateaceae), Aphanocarpus, Cephalodendron, Coccochondra, Coryphothamnus, Duidania, Holstianthus, Yutajea (Rubiaceae), Apocaulon, Rutaneblina (Rutaceae), Achlyphila (Xyridaceae).
Andes ‣ Coespeletia, Carramboa, and Ruilopezia - all three segregated from Espeletia, Freya (Asteraceae), Stalkya (Orchidaceae).
Coastal Cordillera ‣ Margaritolobium (Fabaceae), Rojasimalva (Malvaceae), Llewelynia (Melastomataceae) and Neoblakea (Rubiaceae).
Llanos ‣ No endemic genera.
*The genera Salpinctes (Apocynaceae), Tyleropappus (Asteraceae), Tepuia (Ericaceae), Margaritolobium (Fabaceae), Llewelynia (Melastomataceae), Cephalocarpus, Yutajea (Rubiaceae) are not recognized in SSAA; Neoblakea (Rubiaceae) now occur also in Ecuador; Neblinantha and Sipapoantha (Gentianaceae) occur in N Brazil; Coespeletia, Ruilopezia (Asteraceae), Brewcaria and Steyerbromelia (Bromeliaceae) also occur in Colombia (the last also in Brazil); Quelchia (Asteraceae) also occur in Guyana. On the other hand, Orinoquia (Apocynaceae), Dasyandantha, Tamananthus (Asteraceae) and Autana (Podostemaceae) are absent from work but recognized as endemic to the country by the SSAA.
COLOMBIA
Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia (BOOK, 2016) documents the presence in Colombia of 22,840 species of angiosperms, 45 of gymnosperms and 1,643 of ferns and fern allies, and a total of 24,528 species of vascular plants; of these, 769 species are cultivated, leaving 23,759 species of vascular plants native or naturalized. Additionally, 13 species of hornworts, 932 mosses, 704 liverworts and 1,674 lichens are documented, for a total of 27,860 species. At least 15 of the 769 cultivated species are already naturalized in the country, and they are now part of the wild flora of Colombia.
The total number of species in the Catalogue includes 496 species that have not yet been found in Colombia, but whose presence in the country is expected as they have been collected in neighboring areas, mostly within 10 km from the border. In many cases, as with many plants of Carchi (Ecuador) or Amazonas (Venezuela), the species has been collected in the neighboring country just across the river that marks the border.
PERU
For a list of all vascular plants in Peru, see PERU CHECKLIST, or their ADVANCED SEARCH, both from MOBOT.
BOLIVIA
For a list of all vascular plants in Bolivia, see Bolivia Checklist.
PARAGUAY
The Checklist of the endemic vascular plants of Paraguay - Peña Chocarro & De Egea (Phytotaxa, 2018) - lists 374 taxa from 52 families and 162 genera are endemic of this amable landlocked country. Paraguay Biodiversidad is an excellent natural album of plants collected in their native state in Paraguay.
PARAGUAY/URUGUAY
According to the data provided by this blog, Paraguay and Uruguay have 63 genera of angiosperms absent in Brazil across 31 families, 30 of the genera only in Paraguay, 25 only in Uruguay and 8 in both. Furthermore, 4 of the families do not occur in Brazil: Montiaceae, Polemoniaceae, Frankeniaceae e Papaveraceae.
The most remarkable of this genera is Astragalus L. (Fabaceae), the second largest genus worldwide; in Uruguay occur A. distinens Mackloskie, known from NE Argentina and Colonia, Montevideo, Río Negro, San José and Soriano departaments in SE Uruguay, mostly in sandy, open grasslands places.
Montia fontana L. posssibly introduced in Uruguay (Flora del Cono Sur/Montia fontana).
MOZAMBIQUE
The checklist of angiosperms of Mozambique includes 7,099 taxa (5,957 species, 605 subspecies, 537 varieties), belonging to 226 families and 1,746 genera. There are 6,804 angiosperms, 257 pteridophytes, and 38 gymnosperms. A total of 6,171 taxa are native to Mozambique, while 602 are introduced and the remaining 326 taxa were considered as uncertain status. The endemism level for Mozambique’s flora was assessed at 9.59 ⁒, including 278 strict-endemic taxa and 403 near-endemic. 58.2 ⁒ of taxa are herbaceous, while shrubs and trees account respectively for 26.5 ⁒ and 9.2% ⁒ of the taxa. The checklist also includes ferns (3.6 ⁒), lianas (1.7 ⁒), subshrubs (0.5 ⁒) and cycads (0.3% ⁒). Fabaceae, Poaceae and Asteraceae are the three most represented families, with 891, 543 and 428 taxa, respectively (Délcio Odorico et al., PhytoKeys, 2022).
CHINA
According to an overview of higher plant diversity in China, China has 35,112 native species of higher plants belonging to 3,818 genera and 454 families. Among them, there are 3,045 bryophyte species in 602 genera and 151 families, 2,124 pteridophyte species in 176 genera and 38 families, 227 gymnosperm species in 37 genera and 8 families, and 29,716 angiosperm species in 3,003 genera and 257 families (Lisong Wang, Yu Jia, Xianchun Zhang, Haining Qin, Biodiv Sci, 2015).
Comparisons with recent estimates of global species diversity suggests that the species diversity of Chinese of the global totals of bryophytes (18%), pteridophytes (17%), gymnosperms (22%) and angiosperms (11%) account for. A total of 212 genera are endemic to China with 7 bryophytes, 2 pteridophytes, 7 gymnosperms, and 196 angiosperms. A total of 17,439 species are endemic to China including 524 bryophytes, 840 pteridophytes, 115 gymnosperms, and 15,960 angiosperms.
The top 10 families with highest species diversity are Asteraceae (227g/2,315 species), Poaceae (215/1,787), Fabaceae (141/1,631), Orchidaceae (205/1,556), Lamiaceae (103/975), Ranunculaceae (38/957), Rosaceae (53/954), Cyperaceae (32/871), Ericaceae (22/841), and Rubiaceae (94/696).
The top 12 families with highest endemic genera are Gesneriaceae (26 genera), Asteraceae (18), Orchidaceae (14), Lamiaceae (11), Apiaceae (9), Brassicaceae (9), Apocynaceae (6), Poaceae (6), Melastomataceae (5), Boraginaceae (4), Rubiaceae (4), and Ranunculaceae (4).
The top 10 genera with highest species diversity are Rhododendron (588), Carex (537), Astragalus (420), Pedicularis (363), Corydalis (357), Primula (310), Saussurea (293), Salix (279), Impatiens (274), and Gentiana (255).
The top 10 genera with highest endemic species are Rhododendron (433), Pedicularis (283), Carex (273), Corydalis (258), Astragalus (237), Impatiens (234), Primula (222), Berberis (209), Elatostema (207), and Saussurea (196). Diversity bearing with more than 5,000 species among the seven Chinese provinces is as follows: Yunnan (15,900), Sichuan (10,374), Tibet (7,629), Guangxi (7,399), Guizhou (6,405), Guangdong (5,498) and Taiwan (5,290).
Among the 17 mega-diversity countries China is ranked the fourth when ordered by total species diversity. 1,038 spp. of angiosperms was described in China between 2013 to the end of 2018 (Cai et al., PhytoKeys, 2019).
NEW GUINEA
World’s largest tropical island and has fascinated naturalists for centuries. Home to some of the best-preserved ecosystems on the planet and to intact ecological gradients—from mangroves to tropical alpine grasslands—that are unmatched in the Asia-Pacific region, it is a globally recognized centre of biological and cultural diversity. So far, however, there has been no attempt to critically catalogue the entire vascular plant diversity of New Guinea. Here we present the first, to our knowledge, expert-verified checklist of the vascular plants of mainland New Guinea and surrounding islands. Our publicly available checklist includes 13,634 species (68 ⁒ endemic), 1,742 genera and 264 families - suggesting that New Guinea is the most floristically diverse island in the world. Expert knowledge is essential for building checklists in the digital era: reliance on online taxonomic resources alone would have inflated species counts by 22 ⁒. Species discovery shows no sign of levelling off, and we discuss steps to accelerate botanical research in the ‘Last Unknown’. (Cámara-Leret et al., Nature, 2020).
AUSTRALIA
FloraBase of the Western Australia
20 NEW WORLD CROPS
Three of the 8 most produced food vegetables in the world are native to the New World: maize (2ª), a Monocot originating in Mesoamerica; potato and cassava (7ª and 9ª, respectively), both dicot tubers originating in South America.
Among the other five in Top 8, sugar-cane, wheat and rice are Poaceae native from Old World; soybean are Fabaceae native from Asia; and oil palm is a derivated aliment of African palm native species.
Sugarcane is the world’s largest cultivated cash crop with its incredible ability to synthesize and accumulate sucrose in its stem; present day sugarcane is a man-made hybrid clone produced from Saccharum officinarum L. (Indonesian Archipelago, absent in the natural wild conditions but was grown and maintained for a long time by the island natives) and S. spontaneum L. (Marocco to Australia, Khazakhstan to Java) with a few genes incorporated from S. barberi (Indian cane, contested taxa), and S. sinense (Chinese cane, contested taxa) and to a limited extent from S. robustum E.W.Brandes & Jeswiet ex Grassl (Wallacean cane), all from tropical Asia to Oceania (SEE).
The hexaploid wheat (AABBDD), namely Triticum aestivum L., originated in SE Turkey by archeological records, contains three different genomes each derived from different diploid species. Initially, the progenitor species containing AA (the wild T. urartu Thumanjan ex Gandilyan) and BB subgenomes (wild Aegilops speltoides Tausch.) were discovered and these were hybridized followed by a doubling of chromosomes which resulted in tetraploid fertile wheat, T. turgidum L. (cultigen, AABB). Then the T. turgidum, wild emmer, was domesticated in Fertile Crescent; afterward, T. turgidum hybridized with a diploid wild species A. tauschii Coss. which resulted in the formation of hexaploid wheat (AABBDD) in Fertile Crescent, cultigen widely distributed in world. Because of its high acceptance as an ultimate source of calories, it was spread into different parts of the world via different routes. After domestication, hexaploid wheat was cultivated and selected in diverse geographical regions for centuries which resulted in present-day cultivated bread wheat. Among diploids, einkorn wheat, T. monococcum L., is considered the first domesticated hulled wheat. The historical record shows that it was domesticated 12,000—c. 8,500 years ago in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. However, cultivated tetraploids T. turgidum subsp. dicoccum (Schrank ex Schübl.) Thell. (wheat emmer) and T. turgidum subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn. (tetraploid durum), both arose from wild ancestors (SEE).
Asian cultivated rice Oryza sativa L. was domesticated from the wild rice species O. rufipogon Giff.; the domestication process began around 9,000 years ago in China, possibly in the Yangtze valley, besides the wider range of this species from India to Australia (POWO). There, early communities selected for rice plants with beneficial traits, such as enhanced seed/fruit size, better flavor, and resistance to diseases, pests, and environmental stresses (SEE).
Cultivated soybean (Glycine max subsp. max) appears to have been domesticated from its wild relative G. max subsp. soja (Siebold & Zucc.) H.Ohashi 6,000–9,000 yrs ago in China. Although the exact site of origin of soybean is unknown, S China, the Yellow River valley of central China, NE China, and several other regions (e.g., Korea and Japan) have been identified as candidate regions where soybean could have been domesticated. Chinese literature has indicated that soybean was cultivated during the Shang dynasty from 1,700 to 1,100 BC. Clearly, soybean has been cultivated much longer than the historical evidence indicates. It is commonly accepted that the current cultivated soybean was domesticated from G. max subp. soja. However, some works have suggested that soybean was domesticated from a common ancestor of these two Glycine subspecies, based on a calculated divergence time (SEE).
1. MAIZE (Zea mays L. / Poaceae: 1,148 M tons in 2021)
Maize domestication began in SW Mexico ∼9,000 calendar years before present and humans dispersed this important grain to South America by at least 7,000 years as a partial domesticate. South America served as a secondary improvement center where the domestication syndrome became fixed and new lineages emerged in parallel with similar processes in Mesoamerica. Later, Indigenous cultivators carried a second major wave of maize southward from Mesoamerica (c. 2,000 yr), hybridizing with long-established landraces from the first wave, and that some of the resulting newly admixed lineages were then reintroduced to Central America. Direct radiocarbon dates and cob morphological data from the rock shelter suggest that more productive maize varieties developed between 4,300 and 2,500 cal. BP. (SEE).
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2. POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L. / Solanaceae: 370.4 M tons in 2021)
Cultivated potatoes came from the wild species extensively cultivated in the Andean region (Peru, N Argentina and Bolivia); the domestication of cultivated potato occurs some 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, from diploid wild species (2n = 2x = 24); at first, people assumed potato as a suspicious relative of S. nigrum, a toxic species. S. stenotomum (2x) was the first domesticated potato and considered as the descendant of diploid (2x) wild species. Andean cultivated tetraploids (S. tuberosum group Andigena; 2n = 4x = 48) were produced as a result of autopolyploidization of early diploid landraces S. tuberosum groups Stenotomum [2x] and Phureja [2x]. The domestication of potato from wild species S. brevicaule complex encompasses the selection for underground traits like large tubers with diverse shapes and colour, shorter stolon and reduced bitter taste due to tuber glycoalkaloids. The oldest record of potato consumption is from the site called Jisk'a Iru Muqu, in the Western Titicaca Basin in the Andes mountains of Peru, in 3,400 B.C (NYTimes).
Potatoes were introduced to Europe from the Americas by the Spanish in the second half of the 16th century. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. As of 2021, potatoes were the world's seventh-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, rice, milk and oil palm; following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 5,000 different types of potatoes. Over 99% of potatoes presently cultivated worldwide descend from varieties that originated in the lowlands of south-central Chile (Wikipedia).
3. CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta Crantz / Euphorbiaceae: 303.6 M tons in 2021)
Integrating evidence from comparative plant genetics and paleoethnobotanic starch analysis to contribute to the archaeology of manioc origins, this review finds that (1) the strongest candidate for the botanical origin of domesticated manioc - the wild progenitor of the root crop - is the species Manihot esculenta subsp. flabellifolia (Pohl) Ciferri; (2) the geographical origin of manioc - the biome in which the progenitor evolved - is most likely in savanas of C Brazil (cerrado), to the south of the Amazon rainforest; (3) savanas of C Brazil (cerrado) is also, in our best estimate, the region of agricultural origin of initial cultivation; (4) domesticated manioc had spread from the agricultural origin by the early Holocene, possibly as early as 10,000 years ago, but certainly by 7000 B.C.; (5) domesticated manioc was a readily available plant in most habitats of the Neotropics by the mid-Holocene, at least some 6500 years ago (Latin America Antiquity); (6) cassava was domesticated only once, in southern Amazonia, and that no historical hybridization occurred between cassava and wild relatives in northern Amazonia (Mol. Phyl. Evol., 2009).
Cassava starches have been identified in north-central Colombia by approximately 7,500 years ago, and in Panama at Aguadulce Shelter, about 6,900 years ago. Pollen grains from cultivated cassava have been found in archaeological sites in Belize and Mexico's Gulf coast by 5,800–4,500 bp, and in Puerto Rico between 3,300 and 2,900 years ago. Thus, scholars can safely say that the domestication in the Amazon had to happen before 7,500 years ago (ThoughtCo).
21 LIST OF LINKS
IMAGE DATABANKS
Gymnosperm Database (Gymnosperms)
Manual das Palmeiras do Acre, Brasil (Arecaceae)
Encyclopedia of Bromeliads (Bromeliaceae)
Orquídeas do Rio Grande do Sul (Orchidaceae)
Plantas do Brasil: Leguminosa - Fabaceae (Fabaceae)
Euphorbia PBI (Euphorbia)
Euphorbia nos EUA (Euphorbia)
Malpighiaceae Genera (Malpighiaceae)
Malvaceae Info (Malvaceae)
e-Monograph of the Caricaceae (Caricaceae)
MelNet (Melastomataceae)
The Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae)
67° CNBOT (Loasaceae)
NYBG/Lecythidaceae (Lecythidaceae)
Luteyn/Peñalosa: NYBG (Ericaceae)
CactiGuide (Cactaceae)
Martine Deshoges - PDF (Taxonomy of Cactaceae)
Caryophyllales (Caryophyllales)
Pilger (Santalaceae)
Calió, 2013 (Gentianaceae)
Cole & Tolke (Apocynaceae)
PLATFORMS
iNaturalist - repository of photos from different authors validated by peer recognition, rarely from herbarium, which includes animals, plants and fungi from all over the world; source of rare images and some unpublished on the open search of Google with searches allowed at various taxonomic levels and even by popular names! It has the disadvantage of, in some groups, an excess of samples cultivated in gardens and orchards.
SpeciesLink - remarkable Brazilian database dealing with animals, plants and fungi with records in herbaria or not; the search can be refined by living material and botanical family, which leads to incredible images, a good part of photo libraries, some of species that are not seen on the open internet - since the images on the platform are not traceable by Google. It rarely includes cultivated, garden, or anthropized types.
NEOTROPICAL PLANTS - IMAGE DATABASE KEW - images of various groups, mainly taken in Mato Grosso and Minas Gerais (but also Panama, Bolivia and Peru), organized by family; a disadvantage is few images per species, sometimes just a detail of the plant.
Flora de Santa Catarina - excellent work that has been showing the world a surprising diversity in this beautiful Brazilian state; many images with low contrast; includes many species in anthropic environments. It has already supported botanical publications.
FLORA DIGITAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL - records of plants collected in Rio Grande do Sul; unfortunately most are of poor quality.
FLORA DIGITAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL E SANTA CATARINA - blogspot apparently abandoned, with many records of plants from southern Brazil.
Álbuns de Alex Popovkin - very detailed collection of numerous plants (and also animals) from the Atlantic Forest in northeastern Bahia, some of excellent quality. It has already supported botanical publications.
Flore de Guyane - from French Guiana; some images with unfavorable lighting but on average second best page to view after SpeciesLink; offers the invaluable advantage of chronologically organized posts.
La Chaussette Rouge - one of the richest easy-access pages in the French Guiana Amazon; navigation without bureaucracy, but not chronologically organized.
Guia Igapó - brings many records of plants collected in the upper Rio Negro, Amazonas, but few bring the plant in a natural environment, and it seems abandoned.
Paraguay Biodiverso - light and remarkable page with beautiful records from the Chaco country; it sins for having many unidentified taxons.
Fotos de Flora Nativa e Adventícias de Uruguay - showing with high quality several species from the neighboring platine country; brings records in Uruguay of three families that do not occur in Brazil: Polemoniaceae, Montiaceae and Papaveraceae.
PHOTO CATALOG
Phytoimages - spectacular in natura photo catalog, although not synced with APG IV.
PlantSystematic - very similiar to link above.
Flora of the World - shows pictures of plants from all over the world, organized by family.
Ukrbin - page of Ukrainian origin, brings many excellent images from various parts of the world, especially E Europe, but few in South America.
Botany.cz/Venezuela, Roraima - several images for plants of E Venezuela region.
Roraima Tepui - some images of plants in Mount Roraima in Venezuela.
EXPEDITIONS
Bromeliário Imperialis - promotes expeditions in eastern Brazil, especially in Bahia state; good source of Bromeliaceae images.
Vertical Garden - Patric Blanc - one of the largest panels of beautiful botanical images in existence; focused on species in their original habitat across the planet.
Expedição Fitogeográfica - makes expeditions throughout South America, especially in the Center-South region of the country; little precision in species identification.
Fábio Colombini - a remarkable album of extremely beautiful Brazilian landscapes, but it does not have identifications and seals the images with an immense watermark.
VIRBOGA - brings many interesting images from around the world; in the case of Brazil, it has a great focus on the Northeast, but includes many anthropized records; also has a watermark.
22 PUBLICATIONS for publications about botany, mainly taxonomy, we have a wide range of references.
Phytotaxa
PhytoKeys
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
Taxon
Systematic and Biodiversity
Novon
Brittonia
Kew Bulletin
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
Systematic Botany
Nordic Journal of Botany
Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
Havard Papers in Botany
Acta Botanica Brasilica
Biota Neotropica
Rodriguesia
Lankesteriana
Webbia
CANDOLEA
American Journal of Botany
Peerj
Edinburgh Journal of Botany
Peerj - Plant Sciene Taxonomy
Feddes Repertorium
Phytologia
Willdenowia
Bradleya
Lilloa
Darwiniana
Caldasia
Neodiversity
PlantNow
Plant Diversity
Aquatic Botany
Molecular Plant
Organisms Diversity & Evolution
Rheedea
Hacquetia
Adansonia
Plant Ecology and Evolution
Plant and Fungal Systematics
The Botanical Review
Brazilian Journal of Botany
European Journal of Taxonomy
International Journal of Plant Sciences
Aroideana
Taiwania
