A brief synopsis of several singularities of the South American angiosperms, especially morphological organs, adaptations, chemical, genetic, ecological, habitats, records, among others.
UPDATED IN APRIL 22, 2025 (SEE THE LIST OF LATEST REVISIONS)
THIS TEXT IS CONTINUOUSLY EDITED, CORRECTED, EXPANDED, AND UPDATED
1 LATITUDINAL RECORDS
SOUTHERMOST ONES
The two southermost plants grows in Antartida: Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl. (Caryophyllaceae) and Deschampsia antarctica E. Desv. (Poaceae), both only in coastal rocks, and also in South America (oceanwide-expedition).
Brazil represents the southermost records of some families, as Magnoliaceae.
2 HEIGHT AND GROWTH FORM RECORDS: THE TALLEST AND SMALLEST SPECIES
The entire size range of the Velloziaceae is composed of Brazilian species:, from fewer 10 cm in Vellozia abietina Mart. and V. minima Pohl, to more than 6m in V. gigantea N.L.Menezes & Mello-Silva (POWO | NTK Velloziaceae).
Based on its own observations, SDa infers that the smallest known angiosperms (considering plant size at flowering maturity) fall into three groups, all of which are widely distributed worldwide: [1] terrestrial nanoplants (discussed in the fourth section, absent from Brazil), [2] the Araceae subfamily Lemnoideae (cosmopolitan), and [3] isophasic microparasites in Apodanthaceae (occurring in the Americas, Africa, the Middle East, and Australia).
TALLEST TREES
The tallest tree in Brazil and in America Latina is Dinizia excelsa Ducke (Fabaceae): a specimen with an unbelievable 88.5m in height, in a remote region of the Paru State Forest, in orthern Pará state (Gorgens, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2019) It is a record for the Amazon rainforest, at least 20 m taller than any other record already mentioned, and it is surprising for the existence of others around it with a height greater than 80m, which has always been considered unthinkable for any specimen in South America. In the list of the List of Superlative Trees, Dinizia is the 10th tallest in the world, after five American Gymnosperms, three Tasmanian Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae), and Shorea faguetiana Heim. (Dipterocarpaceae) from Borneo, this being the 2th tallest tree in the tropical region of earth, the tallest non-Malvid angiosperm, and the tallest angiosperm in the New World. For a map of all locations of trees 70m taller in Amazon forest, see Gorgens et al. (Global Change Biology, 2020).
However, González-Espinosa et al. (Flora & Fauna International, 2011, p87) mentions Ulmus mexicana (Liebm.) Planch. (Ulmaceae) as being up to 87m, but the List of Superlative Trees does not mention this record — this is considered the largest tree in Mesoamerica and Mexico. At Monumental Trees, the largest documented tree for South America is a Gyranthera caribensis Pittier (Malvaceae, endemic to Venezuela) from Yaracuy, Venezuela, which reached 63.43m in height (SEE), and is the only angiosperm in South America over 50m mentioned on the website.
Malvids are certainly those who dominate the niche of giant trees — it is worth mentioning the tallest native trees in Africa: Entandrophragma excelsum (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague (Meliaceae, Uganda to N Malawi), with giant limbs that grow around Kilimanjaro (Giant Trees Discovery in Africa). For five times in a row members of Shorea faguetiana were the tallest trees in the tropical world (Wikipedia) Both are Malvids.
Many of the largest members of some orders and families in Brazil correspond to trees. Magnanini & Magnanini (National Council of the Biosphere Reserve of the Atlantic Forest, 2002), with some errors in nomenclature and family registration, disregarded by SDa, lists the tallest trees in Brazil.
The largest Ericales are Bertholletia, Cariniana, Lecythis (Lecythidaceae), in Lamiales is Paratecoma (Bignoniaceae), and in Myrtales is Vochysia (Vochysiaceae), all in the 60m range.
In the 50m range, reaches the tallest trees in orders Malvales (Ceiba, Huberodendron) and Malpighiales (Hevea, Caryocar).
In Salomão (Bulletin of the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, 2009), there is a photo of a Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. tree with a DBH (trunk diameter at breast height) of 3.87 m and 48 m in height. Plantas Raras do Brasil report Pouteria oxypetala (now Lucuma oxypetala (T.D.Penn.) Swenson) from São Paulo and Micropholis resinifera (Ducke) Eyma from Amazonas, both Sapotaceae (Ericales), reaching about 50 m in height. Cardoso et al. (Neodiversity, 2015) report Aguiaria excelsa Ducke (Malvaceae) reaching up to 50 m in height.
LARGEST MEMBERS BY GROUP (EXCEPT TALLEST TREES)
PRESENT IN BRAZIL
Maranta gigantea N Luna & EM Pessoa and M. zingiberina L. Andersson (Marantaceae), from forests of NE Brazil, are the tallest species in this genus, up to 1,8 m tall. (Luna et al., Phytotaxa, 2018). In tropical South America grows the tallest documented holomycotroph, Sciaphila purpurea Benth. (Triuridaceae) from Peru to French Guiana and Brazil, which can reach a height of almost 1.5 m tall (POWO | Triuridaceae). Gunnera manicata Linden ex André is the largest species of all order Gunnerales worldwide, and it's endemic to high mountains of southern Brazil (Wikipedia). Drosera magnifica Rivadavia & Gonella (Droseraceae) from E Minas Gerais in SE Brazil is the largest species of sundrew in New World and a third of world — the other two being D. regia L. from South Africa and D. gigantea Lindl. from Australia (Gonella et al., Phytotaxa, 2015). Based on K.Kubitzki (vol XIV, 2016, p. 3), we sugests that Duckeodendron cestroides Kuhlm., endemic to Brazilian portion of Amazon rainforest, is the tallest member of Solanaceae. Holoregmia viscida Ness. (Martyniaceae) from NE Brazil is the largest member of entery family (Rabelo-Costa et al., PLECEVO, 2022).
The largest bamboos (and Poales) from New World are Guadua chacoensis (Rojas) Londono & P. M. Peterson (S Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia) and G. angustifolia Kunth., from Mexico to Peru (Judd, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 1992). The tallest plants in the Lychnophorinae tribe of Asteraceae, are Gorceixia decurrens Baker reaching up to 7m, and Eremanthus arboreus (Gardner) MacLeish, reaching 5m (Leouille et al., Phytotaxa, 2019), both endemic to Brazil. Siphocampylus clade (Campanulaceae), from Peru, Bolivia and Brazil, is composed of robust shrubs or trees that are exceptionally tall for the centropogonid clade (Lagomarsino & Aguilar, PhytoKeys, 2020). Despite Myrrhidendron donnellsmithii Coulter & Rose (Apiaceae) being the tallest member of its family in New World (up to 5m, Procupez, Revista de Biologia Tropical, 1996), his cogeneric M. glaucescens (Benth.) J.M. Coult. & Rose (PHOTOS | VPA) is not the biggest member of the family in South America (fewer 2m tall., Coulter, JWAS, 1927), a position occupied by forms of Eryngium from S Brazil and adjacent countries, with Eryngium pandanifolium Cham. & Schltdl. reaching to 4m (Correia & Pirani, Flora Fanerogâmica do Estado de São Paulo, vol. 4, 2005) and E. chamissonis Urb. up to 3,5 m high (Reflora).
Begonia luxurians Scheidw. is possibly the tallest Begonia from Brazil (Plants Rescue | PHOTO).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Ceroxylon quindiuense (Karst.) H.Wendl. (Arecaceae) is tallest of all Monocots worldwide, growing in E Andes of Colombia (rarely in the W Colombian Andes), with a disjunct distribution in the Andes of northern Peru (Wikipedia). Heliamphora ionasi Maguire (Sarraceniaceae), endemic to two tepuis in E Venezuela, has the largest pitchers in the genus, which can be up to 50 cm in height (Wikipedia/Heliamphora ionasi). Aosa grandis (Standl.) R.H.Acuña & Weigend is among the largest species of Loasaceae, both in terms of absolute plant size and in the size of its organs — in the wild, plants have stems up to ca. 4 m long and 7 cm in diameter; the leaves are usually very large, reaching lengths up to ca. 50 cm, as are the bracteate inflorescences that can grow to more than 1 m long (Acuña & Wigend, Phytotaxa, 2018). For the tallest members of this Melastomataceae in New World, the most likely are Miconia (M. poeppigii Triana), Mouriri and Tessmannianthus (NTBG | Melastomataceae, as T. cenepensis Wurdack in Ecuador and Peru up to 25 m, T. calcaratus (Gleason) Wurdack up to 30m in Colombia, and T. heterostemon Markgr. up to 45m in Peru and Ecuador (SEE) — all remaining species are fewer 20m, viz T. carinatus Almeda, T. cereifolius Almeda, T. gordonii Almeda, and T. quadridomius Wurdack). Begonia parvifolia Liebm. from Costa Rica to Peru is possibly the tallest member of this genus in New World (Daily Mail). Sobralia altissima DE Benn. & Christenson (Orchidaceae), endemic to Amazonia of Peru, is tallest of all orchids, reaching up to 13.4m tall (The Sobralia Page, 2007). Hydrangea serratifolia (Hook. & Arn.) F. Phil. (Hydrangeaceae) is the largest woody liana in Chile, and possibly in Argentina (Chilebosque). Spergularia manicata (Skottsb) Kool & Thulin, endemic to remote San Ambrosio Island, off the coast of Chile, is the only member of Caryophyllaceae that may grow to a small tree , all the tallest of all worldwide (Kool & Thulin, Taxon, 2017). Oxalis gigantea Barnéoud, endemic to Chile, is largest species of Oxalis (World of Succulents).
The arborescent forms of the predominantly lianescent genera Passiflora and Ipomoea are the largest representatives of these pantropical genera worldwide. Both groups occur from Mexico to the Andes and are absent from Brazil. For further details, see the section 3D.
SMALLEST MEMBERS BY GROUP
PRESENT IN BRAZIL
Arguably, the smallest known plants belong to the floating aquatics of the Wolffia branch of subfamily Lemnoidaee of Araceae — Wolffia Horkel ex Schleid and Wolfiella Helgelm., which are quite simplistic forms, unparalleled in any other group, lacking traditional elements of land plants, and often reduced to feathers in a single frond For Wolffia, 4 spp. occur in New World (2 in Brazil, none endemic), all with fronds ranging from 1.4 to 1.6 mm. The smallest New World species is W. borealis (Englem.) Landolt. from North America, followed by W. brasiliensis Wedd. — these the smallest angiosperm species in South America and Brazil. Worldwide, all seven smallest species are in Old Wold, with the smallest (smallest of all angiosperms) being W. angusta (Roxburgh) Hartog & Plas from Malay Peninsula, New Guinea and Australia, with with fronds on all dimensions smaller than 1 mm (Almanaque Z).
Just looking at the size of the flowering part of the Apodanthaceae species, very rarely a species exceeds 10mm in length (A. Blarer et al., Plant Systematic and Evolution, 2004); however, the isophasic part of the plant can challenge its tiny size. In South America has only isophasic microparasites at Apodanthaceae, among Apodanthes (1, present in Brazil) and Pilostyles (3, 1 in Brazil).
Members of Orchidaceae with flowers less than 2mm diameter includes several species in Platystele from tropical Andes, such as P. ornata Garay (IOSPE), P. enervis Luer (IOSPE), and the smallest Peruvian Orchidaceae, P. peruviana Rizo-Patron (Rizo-Patron, Phytotaxa, 2022), and diminute Campylocentrum Benth., including the smallest of all Orchidaceae worldwide, C. insulare C.E. Siquiera & E.M. Pessoa, a aphyllous species endemic to Santa Catarina state in southern Brazil (Siqueira et al., Systematic Botany, 2015).
Possibly the smallest terrestrial Dicot in Brazil is Lepuropetalon spathulatum Elliot (Celastraceae), a herb forming hemispherical tuft, up to 2 cm tall and wide, rarely larger, which was cited as the smallest terrestrial angiosperm in Chile (M Alvarez et al., Feddes Repertorium, 2012) Images of this plants at Flora Nativa de Uruguay/Celastraceae. In Brazil this species was collected in small low sites in E Rio Grande do Sul state.
Careful observation of the SDa suggests that Annona warmingiana Mello-Silva & Pirani maybe the smallest of all Magnoliales species. We sugests that Lithobium cordatum Bong., endemic to rocky habitats in SE Brazil, is possibly the smallest of all Melastomataceae in New World, that form small rosettes that do not exceed 3 cm in diameter (Penneys et al., Phytotaxa, 2020). Dorstenia gracilis Carauta (Moraceae), endemic to E Brazil, is possibly the smallest species of Moraceae worlwide (our own observation, based on CNC Flora | Dorstenia gracilis). The smallest of all Gesneriaceae is Sinningia minima A. O. Araújo & Chautems, endemic to wet rocks in SE Pará state in N Brazil, growing to a maximum size of 2.5 cm (Araujo et al., Phytotaxa, 2015).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Some plants of high mountains Peru, compete among the smallest of their groups - some among the smallest in over terrestrial angiosperms. As an example, Viola liliputana H. H. Iltis & H. E. Ballard (Violaceae), a acaulescent perennial herbs, up to 1.1 cm tall, is mentionable (Ballard & Iltis, Brittonia, 2012), cited in this work as possibly the smallest known terrestrial Dicot. However, Lysipomia mitsyae Sylvester & D.Quandt (Campanulaceae), minute glabrous short-lived monocarpic herb and also from Peru, 1.8–4(–5.5) mm tall, is smaller; this species occur only in Cuzco region (Sylvester et al., Taxon, 2016).
Raddiella vanessieae Judz., endemic to French Guiana, is smallest known bamboo, flowering at only 2 cm high (Judziewicz, Journal of the Botanic Research of Institute of Texas, 2007). Begonia elachista Moonlight & Tebbitt (Begoniaceae), from lowlands of Peru, is the world smallest species of Begoniaceae, that reaches maturity at fewer than 5 cm in height (PW Moonlight et al., European Journal of Taxonomy, 2017). The smallest of all Cactaceae can also be considered a nanoplant: Blossfeldia liliputiana Werderm, from S Bolivia to N Argentina, only about 10-12 mm in diameter at maturity (llifle | Bloosfeldia).
3 TROPHISMS
Introduction.
3A MYCOHETEROTROPHICS
The best site for this group of plants is Mycoheterotrophy.com. Following circunscription of Merckx (Mycoheterotrophy: The Biology of Plants Living on Fungi, 2013) exclusively for holomycothophics species of angiosperms, 91 species in 24 genera of 7 families are holomycotrophs in South America. Brazil has 66 spp. (24 endemic) in 24 genera (Pogoniopsis Rchb.f., Orchidaceae, 2 spp.) in 6 families.
Of the families with holomycotrophs in South America, only Triuridaceae and Corsiaceae are composed entirely of holomycotrophic species worldwide. However, among the remaining represented genera, only two include both chlorophyllous and holomycotrophic species: Burmannia and Microchilus. In the former, only B. tenella Benth., among the New World species, is holomycotrophic. In the latter, of the nine species, only the enigmatic M. pedicellatus (Cogn.) E.C.Smidt & M.W.Chase, from Brazil, is thought to be holomycotrophic. Mathias Engels (THESIS, 2014) cites its occurrence in Paraguay (p. 118) and notes that it has not been collected for several decades and may not be holomycotrophic. The table below lists only holomycotrophic species.
| FAMILY | GENERA | SA | BR | ONLY BR | NOTES |
| CORSIACEAE | Arachnits | 1 | Arachnitis uniflora Phil. from Bolívia, Peru, Argentina and Chile, up to Falklands Is. | ||
| ERICACEAE | Monotropa | 1 | Several genera and species in northern Hemisphere. In South America only M. uniflora L., collected in Colombia. | ||
| GENTIANACAE | Voyria | 17 | 13 | 1 | 22 spp., 21 in Neotropics and one in W Africa. |
| Voyriella | 1 | 1 | One species in northern South America. | ||
| BURMANNIACEAE | Apteria | 1 | 1 | One widely distributed species in Neotropics. | |
| Burmannia | 1 | 1 | Pantropical genus, centered in Asia. | ||
| Campylosiphon | 1 | 1 | Two species, New World and Africa one each. | ||
| Dyctiostega | 1 | 1 | One widely distributed species. | ||
| Gymnosiphon | 12 | 7 | Pantropical. | ||
| Hexapterella | 2 | 1 | Two spp., one widely distributed and one only in Venezuela. | ||
| Miersiella | 1 | 1 | Only one species in over tropical South America. | ||
| THISMIACEAE | Thismia | 23 | 20 | 13 | Tropical America, tropical Asia to Oceania, and NE USA |
| Tiputinia | 1 | Only one sp., known only from E Ecuador and S Peru. | |||
| TRIURIDACEAE | Lacandonia | 1 | 1 | 1 | Two very rare spp. one in Mexico, another in Brazil. |
| Peltophyllum | 2 | 2 | 1 | Two restricted spp. in Brazil, Guyana and Argentina. | |
| Sciaphila | 8 | 6 | 2 | Old and New World. | |
| Soridium | 1 | 1 | One widely distributed species in Neotropics. | ||
| Triuridopsis | 2 | Two spp., Peru and Bolivia one endemic each. | |||
| Triuris | 3 | 2 | 1 | Three species, scattered from Mexico to Brazil. | |
| ORCHIDACEAE | Platythelys | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 spp., only one (Brazil, Paraguay) mycoheterotrophic. |
| Degranvillea | 1 | One sp. from French Guiana and Suriname. | |||
| Uleiorchis | 4 | 3 | 2 | Four species in over tropical America. | |
| Pogoniopsis | 2 | 2 | 2 | Two species endemic to Brazil. | |
| Wullscglaegelia | 2 | 2 | Two widely distributed species in Neotropics. | ||
| TOTAL | 91 | 66 | 24 |
Five genera are unknown in Brazil: Degranvillea Datermann only in French Guiana and Suriname, Monotropa only in Colombia, and the rest all in Peru, extending either to Ecuador, Bolivia or the Southern Cone. Brazil has endemic species in all genera with endemic species in a country of South America, except Gymnosiphon (endemic species only in Guyana) and Hexapterella (with a Venezuelan endemic). At South American holomycotrophics familiar lineages, Ericaceae and Corsiaceae are the unique unknown in Brazil. The first report of holomycotrophic dicot in Argentina was Voyria aphylla (Jacq.) Pers. (Gentianaceae) via F. E. Gatti & H. A. Keller (Bonplandia, 2019), in Misiones.
In tropical South America grows the tallest documented holomycotroph, Sciaphila purpurea Benth. (Triuridaceae) from Peru to French Guiana and Brazil, which can reach a height of almost 1.5 m tall (POWO | Triuridaceae).
3B CARNIVOROUS
Plastid molecular phylogenies that broadly sampled angiosperm lineages imply that carnivorous plants evolved in 14 families and 6 orders (Fleck & Jobson, Plants, 2023, accepted here).
There are (6:9/)204 spp. of carnivorous plants in South America (141 in Brazil, 66 endemic), in Paepalanthus (Eriocaulaceae), Drosera (Droseraceae), Philcoxia (Plantaginaceae), Heliamphora (Sarraceniaceae), Genlisea, Utricularia, Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae), Catopsis and Brocchinia (Bromeliaceae). Among the first six genera, Brazil has endemic species. Only Pinguicula does not occur in Brazil, which is the continental center of diversity for Philcoxia (a endemic genus), Genlisea, Drosera, and Utricularia. Venezuela, on the other hand, is the center of diversity for Brocchinia and Heliamphora.
Paepalanthus, Triantha (Tofieldiaceae, Canada, USA), Catopsis, and Brocchinia are the only carnivorous monocots and the only genera with both carnivorous and non-carnivorous species (1 out of 257, 1 out of 4, 1 out of 20, and 2 out of 17, respectively). Families with carnivorous species but without such representatives in Brazil include Tofieldiaceae (Triantha occidentalis, Canada, USA), Linderniaceae (Crepidorhopalon droseroides Eb.Fisch., Wursten & I.Darbysh., Mozambique), Roridulaceae (2, South Africa), Drosophyllaceae (Drosophyllum lusitanicum (L.) Link, Portugal, Spain, Morocco), Dioncophyllaceae (Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch. & Dalziel) Airy Shaw, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone), Nepenthaceae (1/183, Madagascar to China, extending to Australia) — all these mutually disjunct and unknown from Brazil; Cephalotaceae (1, W Australia) and Byblidaceae (8, Australia and S New Guinea).
The Brazilian Paepalanthus bromelioides Silveira, the unique carnivorous Eriocaulaceae, forms a water-holding tank within its rosette of leaves and is currently considered carnivorous based on δ¹⁵N values that indicate nitrogen uptake from animal prey. Experimental demonstrations of nutrient absorption have yet to be conducted.
| FAMILY | GENERA | SA | BR | ONLY BR | NOTES |
| ERIOCAULACEAE | Paepalanthus | 1 | 1 | 1 | tropical America; carnivorous member endemic to mountains of Minas Gerais state, SE Brazil. |
| DROSERACEAE | Drosera | 43 | 31 | 21 | Mainly wet soils, high diverse in mountains of Brazil and Australia. |
| PLANTAGINACEAE | Philcoxia | 7 | 7 | 7 | A single carnivorous genus in this family, nematode-eating from sandy dry soils in Maranhão, Goiás, Bahia and Minas Gerais states in E Brazil. |
| SARRACENIACEAE | Heliamphora | 23 | 5 | 1 | High table-montane habitats in Guyana Highlands: Western Group (6, 3 in Brazil, one endemic) and Eastern Group (17, two in Brazil, none endemic). |
| BROMELIACEAE | Brocchinia | 1 | 1 | Guyana Highlands habitats, to low sandy soils to humid high table mountains (tepuis). | |
| Catopsis | 2 | 1 | Epiphytes very widely in tropical America, mainly in Caribbean. | ||
| LENTIBULARIACEAE | Genlisea | 20 | 18 | 12 | Two subgenera, subg. Genlisea from over range of genus, and subg. Tayloria (9) endemic to Brazil. |
| Pinguicula | 12 | Mainly wet soils; 5 spp. occur from Venezuela to Bolivia, and five in Argentina and Chile, all in two endemic clades, Isoloba sect. Ampullipalatum with 8 spp. in both regions, and Temnoceras sect. Heterophylliformis, monotypic, with P. elongata Benj. from Colombia and Venezuela. | |||
| Utircularia | 97 | 78 | 25 | Mainly wet soils. | |
| 204 | 142 | 67 |
Only Brazil, Australia, South Africa and the USA have endemic genera of carnivore plants, with Philcoxia (7) being the largest of them.
| 1 | BRAZIL | Philcoxia (7, PLANTAGINACEAE) | ||||
| 1 | AUSTRALIA | Cephalotus (1, CEPHALOTACEAE) – a single genus in this family. | ||||
| 1 | SOUTH AFRICA | Roridula (2, RORIDULACEAE) – a single genus in this family. | ||||
| 2 | USA | Darlingtonia (1, SARRACENIACEAE), Dionaea (1, DROSERACEAE). | ||||
For new species, Fleischmann & al. (Willdenowia, 2009) described Heliamphora uncinata Nerz, Wistuba & A.Fleischm., H. ciliata Wistuba, Nerz & A.Fleischm. and H. huberi A.Fleischm., Wistuba & Nerz. in 2009. In 2011, the Associazione Italiana Piante Carnivore (AIPC Special Issue 4: News of 2011) summarizes a series of species of carnivorous plants discovered during the year, in particular some Brazilian ones in Droseraceae, Sarraceniaceae and Lentibulariaceae.
3C PARASITICS
Angiosperms that morphologically and physiologically attach to other flowering plants by means of a haustorium have evolved 12 times independently resulting in (292/)4,750 spp. Although hemiparasites predominate, holoparasitism has evolved in all but two clades, Cassytha (Lauraceae) and Krameria (Krameriaceae). Santalales contains the largest number of genera (179) and species (2,428) among the 12 parasitic plant lineages whereas Orobanchaceae is the largest single family with 102 genera and over 2,100 spp. Santalales contains the widest array of nutritional modes including autotrophic non-parasites (13/71), hemiparasites (149/2,312), and holoparasites (17/45), among others (Nickrent, Taxon, 2020).
South America has 876 parasitic species in 68 genera of 17 families. Brazil has 278 spp. in 47 genera of 13 families. 132 spp. and 5 genera are endemic to Brazil (all hemiparasitic, Oryctina, Notochilus, Physocalyx and Magdalenaea). Endemic genera, despites Brazil, occur only in Chile (Desmaria and Notanthera, both hemiparasitic). Of 598 parasitic species in South America absent in Brazil, 357 (3/5) are Phoradendron, Neobratsia, Cuscuta, Dendrophtora or Psittacanthus.
Santalaceae has 298 spp. in South America, only 56 in Brazil (41 of them in Phoradendron), 17 endemic (in Phoradendron, Antidaphne, Acanthosyris and Thesium). Loranthaceae has 283 spp. in South America, 121 in Brazil, 61 endemic.
| FAMILY | GENERA | GENERA | SPECIES | NOTES | |||||
| SA | BR | ONLY BR | EXXOGENERA | SA | BR | ONLY BR | |||
| EHRETIACEAE | Lennoa | 1 | 1 | 1 | Colombia and Venezuela. | ||||
| MITRASTEMONACEAE | Mitrastemon | 1 | 1 | 1 | Colombia. | ||||
| CITYNACEAE | Bdalophytum | 1 | 1 | 1 | Colombia. | ||||
| APODANTHACEAE | Apodanthes | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Pilostyles | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |||||
| ARISTOLOCHIACEAE | Prosopanche | 1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 3 | |||
| KRAMERIACEAE | Krameria | 1 | 1 | 8 | 5 | 2 | |||
| LAURACEAE | Cassytha | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
| CONVOLVULACEAE | Cuscuta | 1 | 1 | 65 | 22 | 9 | |||
| OROBANCHACEAE | 15 | 15 | 10 | 3 | 5 | 149 | 41 | 25 | |
| XIMENIACEAE | Ximenia | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | |||
| OLACACEAE | Dulacia | 1 | 1 | 13 | 10 | 4 | |||
| Ptychopetalum | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | ||||
| BALANOPHORACEAE | 7 | 7 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 19 | 13 | 5 | |
| MISODENDRACEAE | Misodendron | 1 | 1 | 8 | Argentina and Chile. | ||||
| SCHOEPFIACEAE | Quinchamalium | 1 | 1 | 1 | Peru to Chile and Argentina. | ||||
| Schoepfia | 1 | 1 | 8 | 3 | 1 | ||||
| LORANTHACEAE | 17 | 17 | 12 | 1 | 5 | 283 | 111 | 63 | |
| OPILIACEAE | Agonandra | 1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 1 | |||
| SANTALACEAE | 12 | 12 | 7 | 5 | 298 | 56 | 17 | ||
| TOTAL | 68 | 47 | 5 | 21 | 876 | 278 | 132 | ||
Three Olacoid parasitic genera (all root hemiparasites) occur in South America: Ptychopetalum, Dulacia (Olacaceae) and Ximenia (Ximeniaceae), with 18 spp. in continent, 15 in Brazil (exception are three Dulacia) and 6 endemic, in the three genera. Agonandra (Opiliaceae) also is parasitic (Toan Lee et al., Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 2018). Parasitism on Schoepfia was described in Werth et al. (Biotropica, 1979). Three lineages with hemiparasites are monogeneric and phyllogenetically isolated: Krameria (within own family Krameriaceae), Cassytha (within green family Lauraceae) and Cuscuta (within green family Convolvulaceae). All these genera occur in Brazil, with 26 spp., 4 in Krameria (2 endemic), 1 in Cassytha and 22 in Cuscuta (9 endemic). Cuscuta includes hemi and holoparasites but definition by species, in Brazil, is unavailable.
Orobanchaceae has 15 genera in South America, all fully parasitics, 10 in Brazil (largest diversity of continent in genera, with 40 spp., 24 endemic), 3 endemic. All Brazilian members are hemipasasitics — of the 5 missing genera, 4 are non endemic to continent: Euphrasia and the holoparasitic Aphyllon occur locally in Peru to Argentina, Chile and Bolivia (20 spp. in area); Pedicularis and Lamourouxia occur locally in Colombia to Ecuador (3 spp. in area, the latter also in Peru); Neobartsia (48) is restricted from Venezuela to Argentina, and has a bigger radation in Andes. 20 genera in this family are holoparasitic, but only Aphyllon occur in South America.
Two holoparasitic lineage does not occur in South America both outside New World: Rafflesiaceae and Cynomoriaceae. Three holoparasitic lineage occur, in South America, only in Colombia and Venezuela: Lennoa (Ehretiaceae), Bdallophytum (Cytinaceae) and Mitrastemon (Mitrastemonaceae), all monotypic in region.
Isophasic parasitism is very rare, a feature that, in Santalales, is only known for in several species of Arceuthobium (A. americanum Nutt. ex Engelm., A. douglasii Engelm. and A. pusillum Peck in North America, and A. minutissimum Hook. in Hymalaia), in Phoradendron perredactum Rzedowski & Calderón, from Mexico (Kuijt, Acta Botanica Mexicana, 2011), and in Tristerix aphyllus (Miers ex DC.) Tiegh. ex Barlow & Wiens.
Only two several parasitic plants infect cactis, both Loranthaceae subtribe Ligariinae: Tristerix aphyllus attacking Trichocereeus chiloensis (Colla) Britton & Rose in Chile, and Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh. on Corryocactus Britton & Rose in Peru (Mauseth et al., Cactus and Succulent Journal, 2006). Tristerix aphyllus also has the most derived parasite in Santalales, as a endophytic parasite on cacti, whose endophytic life history may allow the parasite to escape the hot and desiccating desert conditions; however, this species retain some chlorophyll, and in spite of these extreme advances toward parasitism, true holoparasites are absent in the order despites Balanophoraceae (Science Direct | Holoparasitic).
4 HABITS
4A HIGH DIVERSE GENERA
Here we list the genera we consider to be the most morphologically diverse in South America: Baccharis L. (Asteraceae), Valeriana L. (Valerianaceae), Phyllanthus L. (Phyllanthaceae), and Oxalis L. (Oxalidaceae). Determining which genus is the most variable lacks a universally accepted taxonomic criterion and ultimately depends on the author’s perspective. We consider the order presented above to reflect decreasing morphological variation. For instance, Baccharis ranges from herbaceous forms with reduced stems to shrubby or tree-like growth forms; however, it does not include floating forms, as seen in Phyllanthus, nor succulent rosettes, as found in Valeriana.
Baccharis
A highly diverse genus, ranging from acaulescent species in saline Andean habitats to vigorous trees in tropical forests (Heiden & Bonifacino, Head Topics, 2021). The genus also includes phyllocladous forms, cushion plants, and even vine-like species.
Valeriana
Considered here the second most morphologically diverse genus in South America, Valeriana encompasses a remarkable array of growth forms. These include agave-like rosettes with long inflorescences, as in V. plantaginea Kunth (Ecuador and Peru), or shorter ones, as in V. rigida Ruiz & Pav. (Colombia to Bolivia); species with twisted leaves such as V. macrorhiza Poepp. ex DC. (Southern Cone); erect, microphyllous herbs like V. microphylla Kunth (Colombia to Peru); prostrate herbs with simple leaves, as in V. glechomifolia F.G. Mey. (Brazil), or dissected leaves, as in V. philippiana Briq. (Southern Cone); succulent rosettes such as V. henricii (Graebn.) B. Eriksen (Ecuador and Peru) and V. moyanoi Speg. (Southern Cone); herbaceous lianas, e.g., V. scandens L. (tropical America), as well as woody climbers like V. clematitis Kunth (Mexico to the Southern Cone), and even tree-like forms such as V. tajuvensis Sobral (Brazil).
Phyllanthus
Morphologically diverse within the Brazilian flora, Phyllanthus comprising annual species, including microphyllous and even aphyllous forms, as well as arborescent, lianoid, aquatic, and phyllocladous species. The genus also exhibits considerable variation in pollen types and chromosome numbers (Wurdack et al., American Journal of Botany, 2004).
Oxalis
According to Gardner et al. (American Journal of Botany, 2012), Oxalis includes annual and acaulescent herbs with lacunose leaf surfaces (notably in sect. Palmatifoliae), woody shrubs, cushion plants, lianas, and succulents. It has also evolved a wide range of geophytic structures — tubers, tuberous roots, rhizomes, and bulbs — and is unique among eudicots in having multiple independent geophytic clades with significant geographical, morphological, and taxonomic implications.
4B SLIGHTLY DIVERSE GENERA
Brocchinia
This genus has the greatest diversity of means of capturing nutrients among all angiosperms at the generic level, and of morphological variation among Bromeliaceae (Givnish et al., Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, 1998), including carnivores (B. reducta Baker, B. hechtioides Mez), myrmecophytes (B. acuminata L.B. Sm.), (possible) nitrogen fixation by symbiosis (populations of B. tatei L.B. Sm. in the north of Gran Sabana), tank epiphytes (B. hitchcockii L.B. Sm. and B. tatei, optional), terrestrial (B. gilmartiniae Varad.), semi-arboreal (B. micrantha (Baker)Mez., B. paniculata Schult.f., the latter occurs in Brazil), paludiculous (B. melanacra L.B. Sm. (fire resistance), B. prismatica L.B. Sm. and B. steyermarkii L.B. Sm.) and conventional terrestrial forms; in addition, it includes some of the smallest (5 cm) and largest (8 m) bromeliads, arborescent rosettes and lianoid species.
Paepalanthus
A gebus with a remarkable diversity of shapes, from tiny to robust rosettes (Andrino, Fieldgudes, 2015).
Begonia
Based primarily on Moonlight et al. (Taxon, 2018), one can consider Begonia's morphological diversity as one of the largest in the flowering plants, rivaling Euphorbia and Valeriana; the different patterns of shape, texture and coloring of leaves, habits, and flowers are of an incredible variety and it impresses this to be an unquestionably natural group.
Euphorbia
Although Valeriana is the most varied genus in South America in the opinion of SDs, in Brazil here we consider it to be Euphorbia, which we also place as the most morphologically varied genus in the world. Brazilian members includes prostrate tiny herbs, succulent spines, pencil stemmed and foliosous fragile herbs.
Turnera
This genus has a remarkable diversity of leaf shape patterns and flower variants, as seen in L.Rocha et al. (ScienceDirect, 2019).
Ficus
Hodkinson et al. (Taxonomy and Systematics of Species Rich Taxa, 2007) declare Ficus one of the most diverse genera in terms of habit and form of life, as it includes evergreen and deciduous, epiphytic and hemi-epiphytic trees (some strangling), creepers, shrubs, and has species ranging from reophytes to lithophytes.
Ludwigia
Put here at the extremes of its diversity: from the floating aquatic L. sedoides (Bonpl.) H. Hara (Flickr) to trees as L. anastomosans (DC.) H. Hara (POWO).
Draba
This genus has has all diversity of size in n South America, showing tremendous variability in the growth habit, though most of the paramo taxa have woody lower stems and often form subshrubs; all typically woody lower stems are restricted to South America (Al-Shehbaz, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2018).
Pavonia
High diverse in the Brazilian states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, where the broadest range of morphological diversity occurs (Grings et al., Systematic Botany, 2011).
Sinningia
Highly centered of E & SE Brazil, stands out in their family accumulating some quite remarkable singularities, such as the smallest of all (S. minima A. O. Araújo & Chautems, endemic to wet rocks in SE Pará state, growing to a maximum size of 2.5 cm - Araujo et al., Phytotaxa, 2015), the unique annual members of family in New World (S. nordestina Chautems, Baracho & J.A.Siqueira, endemic to NE Brazil, Gesneriad Reference Web), the unique epiphytes in New World Gesneriacea outside Episceae (Hinoshita, Dissertation, 2014), and one the most bizarre member of family (S. tuberosa (Mart.) H. E. Moore, a tuberous species with a storage organ in the form of a tuber and produce usually only one leaf per reason, endemic to mountains of SE Brazil - K.Kubitzki, vol VII, 2004).
4C TREES
For trees, a worldwide global list of trees are available in GlobalTreeSearch. The List of Superlative Trees includes a series of rankings on trees (in addition to the largest, widest and oldest), such as more volumous, thicker, thicker branches, deeper barks and larger canopy in covered area SDa does not have any consistent information about our records on these last issues, unfortunately A summary of floristic variation and distribution of richness of tree and tree-like taxa in Brazil is available in Luciene Castuera-Oliveira, Ary Teixeira de Oliveira-Filho and Pedro V. Eisenlohr (Acta Botanica Brasilica, 2019).
For a general analysis of trees, it is worth visiting E. Beech et al. (Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 2017), which provides a general scenario of the world's trees: 60,065 spp., almost half (45 ⁒, 27,203) in just 10 families, with Fabaceae (5,405), Rubiaceae (4,827) and Myrtaceae (4,330) leading full Myrtaceae has the three genera that lead at this level: Syzigium (1069), Eugenia (884) and Eucalyptus (747). Brazil leads with 8,715 spp. of trees, followed by Colombia (5,776) and Indonesia (5,142). Almost 3/5 of the trees are national endemisms, mainly in Brazil (4,333), Madagascar (2,991), Australia (2,584) and China (2,149).
IN BRAZIL
Rhodospatha arborescens Temponi & Croat (Araceae), endemic to the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais state, is the only arborescent species among the 29 of its genus, which is something rare as a whole in Araceae, also occurring only in Montrichardia and Philodendron (Temponi et al., Brittonia, 2012). Ludwigia anastomosans (DC.) H. Hara (Onagraceae) is a unique tree species in the genus, restricted to river banks in the central Brazilian savannas and Atlantic Forest of Brazil, so unique and composes a section of this alone (Zardini & Raven, Systematic Botany, 1992).
OFF BRAZIL IN NW SOUTH AMERICA
Passiflora (Passifloraceae) includes nine species as true trees, all from Colombia but one (4 endemic), remaining up to Costa Rica, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru. P. lindeniana Planch. ex Triana & Planch reaches up to 20m high (Almanaque Z/Flora World). Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) includes six true trees (up to 15m tall in a mexican endemic), all from Mexico, I. wolcottiana Rose, Gard. & Forest and I. pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti up to Peru in South America (Almanaque Z/Flora World). Aristolochia arborea Linden is the most arborescent species of this genus (Angios Bergianska), known from Mexico to Colombia (POWO).
OFF BRAZIL IN GUIANA HIGHLANDS
Uncommon dendroid habits also occur in Bromeliaceae, mainly in Brocchinia (dendroid palm-like in B. micrantha (Baker) Mez./SEE, and vellozioid in B. uaipanensis (Maguire) Givnish/SEE). Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea Maguire & Ashton (Cistaceae) shows a taller tropical tree from Venezuela and Guyana, an aberrant genetically isolated divergence from the rest of the family, which are mostly shrubs or herbs mostly concentrated in cold regions Northern Hemisphere (Angios Bergianska/Malvales/Cistaceae).
4D HERBS
Small, seed-bearing plant without a woody stem in which all aerial parts (above ground) die back to the ground at the end of each growing season.
IN BRAZIL
Herbs in Rhamnaceae possibly occur only in Crumenaria decumbens Mart. from Guatemala to Honduras, Bolivia and Brazil (Angios Bergianska). Among Lychnophorinae subtribe of Asteraceae, herbs occur only in Centratherum (Leouille et al., Phytotaxa, 2019) Dwarf species of Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) are short, usually less than 50 cm, entirely or occasionally missing a climbing stem, appearing as self-supported or prostate herbs (Araújo, Antar & Lombardi, Kew Bulletin, 2016); this habit has mainly in African savannah, Mexico (2) and Brazil (at least 6 spp).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Among Schoepfiaceae, herbs occur only in Quinchamalium Molina (C & S Andes, Angios Bergianska). In Bignoniaceae, few herbs occur, with New World members belonging Tourretia (1) from Mexico to Bolivia, Eccremocarpus Ruiz & Pavon (5) from Colombia to Cono Sur, these herbaceous vines (Udulutsch Acevedo-Rodríguez, BOOK, 2022), and Argylia from Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina (K.Kubitzki, vol VII, 2004).
4E EPIPHYTES
The complexity and extraordinary diversity of epiphytes in the South American flora are beyond the scope of this website — however, it is worth noting some groups Zotz (Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013) is a most large list of epiphytes worldwide, showing number of 27,614 spp. (including primary hemiepiphytes) representing 913 genera in 73 families, or approximately 9% of extant vascular plant diversity.
IN BRAZIL
Despite the 'epiphyte' fame of Araceae, true epiphytes in the family, in the New World, occur only in Anthurium, Philodendron and Stenospermation (Zotz, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013). Ludovia lancifolia Brongn. (Cyclanthaceae) from America Central to Peru, Guianas and Brazil is the unique epiphytic Cyclanthaceae (P.Gomes & R.Mello-Silva, Flora of Reserva Ducke, 2006). Amaryllidaceae includes epiphytes only in Pamianthe (3, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, 1 each), Hippeastrum (5, all endemic to Brazil) and some groups of southern Africa (Zotz, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013). Acanthaceae includes only three species epiphytic worldwide in Stenostephanus (= Hansteinia = Habracanthus), Loutheridium (these by Zotz, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013) and Clistax bahienses Profice & Leitman (Profice & Leitman, Phytotaxa, 2013), known from Bahia state in E Brazil.
A curious relationship between plants is the exclusivity of given orchids on their support plant, a phenomenon observed mainly in Brazil and Africa. In Brazil a number of endemic orchids occurs epiphytically on the stems of different Velloziaceae. Well-known is the case of Constantia cipoensis Porto & Brade which occurs only in association with V. piresiana L. B. Smith and V. compacta Mart. ex. Schult. f., which occur on rocky outcrops above 1000 m elevation. Similarly, Pseudolaelia vellozicola (Hoehne) Porto & Brade is known to occur only on the stems of Velloziaceae, which grow on rock outcrops in E Brazil (Porembsk, Nordic Journal of Botany, 2008).
2,095 species of epiphytic plants was compiled for Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, recorded from 1824 to early 2018 (Nunes Ramos, Ecology, 2019).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Ericaceae is the sixth largest family in number of epiphytes in the Neotropics, after Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, Araceae, Piperaceae and Gesneriaceae; about 45 ⁒ of the family species in the region are epiphytes (approximatelly 340), but with a marked distinction: the species with an upper ovary are terrestrial (except populations of Gaultheria erecta Vent. in Costa Rica and some individuals of Lyonia octandra (Sw.) Griseb. from Jamaica, therefore, no South American record), whereas, except for Vaccinium L. and Gaylussacia Kunth, all those of the lower ovary tend to be epiphytes (Luteyn, The Botanical Review, 2002). In this perspective, seven genera of Vaccinieae (inferior ovary) may have epiphytic species in Brazil — however, in the search for 'Ericaceae epiphytes' in Flora 2020 (SEE), only Satyria panurensis (Benth. ex Meisn.) Hook. f. ex Nied. is identified as such; therefore, it can be concluded that only 1 of the nearly 400 epiphytic Ericaceae of the neotropics occurs in Brazil - and even though in South America they are much less than 340, it is still a very small representation.
Burmannia kalbreyeri Oliv. (Burmanniaceae) from Costa Rica to Ecuador and Venezuela, non-holomycotrophic (NYBG), is the unique epiphyte in their family. The two species of Cochliostema (Commelinaceae, America Central to Ecuador) are the only ones in the family with bromeloid habit as tank epiphytes (K.Kubitzki, vol IV, 1998, p. 110). Solanum morelliforme Bitter & Münch (Solanaceae) is the only epiphyte species in section Petota (´potatoes'), known disjunctly from S Mexico to Honduras, and forests near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia and Peru (Jansky et al., Frontiers in Plant Science, 2016). Other three spp. of this genus are epiphytes (Tepe & Bohs, Systematic Botany, 2011), including S. evolvulifolium Greenm. (Costa Rica to Peru and Venezuela) and S. phaseoloides Pol. (Mexico to Panama). Voyria aphylla (Jacq.) Pers. and V. spruceana Benth. (Gentianaceae) have already been collected growing as epiphytes at about 30 m in height in Colombia (Merckx, Mycoheterotrophy: The Biology of Plants Living on Fungi, 2013).
4F LIANAS
IN BRAZIL
Unique lianas among their families includes Thoracocarpus bisssectus (Vell.) Harling (Cyclanthaceae) from over tropical South America (P Gomes & R.Mello-Silva, Flora da Reserva Ducke, 2006) and Velloziella Baill. (3), from Venezuela up to E Brazil, among Orobanchaceae (POWO | Orobanchaceae). Desmoncus (Arecaceae) includes the only liana palms from the New World alongside Chamaeodora elatior Mart. from Mexico and America Central and Bactris glassmanni Med.-Costa & Noblick ex A.J.Hend. from Brazil (Lianas in Neotropics), and are the Neotropical equivalents of Old World rattans — only D. stans Grayum & de Nevers from Costa Rica does not have a lianoid habit (Hendeson, Phytotaxa, 2011). Against their essentially lianoid family, types like Abuta grandifolia (Mart.) Sandwith and Cissampelos ovalifolia DC. from Menispermaceae are tree and herbs, respectively; both occur in a vast area of South America (Neotropical Menispermaceae).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Unique lianas among their families includes Vasconcellea horovitziana (V.M. Badillo) V.M. Badillo (Caricaceae) from Ecuador (e-Monography of the Caricaceae). Lianoids are uncommon in Oxalis (Oxalidaceae), and such only occur in South America, as O. lotoides Kunth and O. medicaginea Kunth, both native to Venezuela to Peru (Emshviller, The Botanical Review, 2002). At Brassicaceae, lianoids occur only in Heliophila from South Africa, some Australian Lepidium, and in Cremolobus from South America (K. Kubitzki & C. Bayer, vol V, 2003).
5 PHYSIOLOGICAL, ECOLOGICAL and MORPHOLOGICAL GROUPS
5A MANGROVES
Based on The World Mangroves (FAO, 2007), considering the denial of the pteridophyte Acrostichum aureum L. as a mangrove, excluding Nypa fruticans Wurmb. (Arecaceae) as part of the lists (for not being native to the New World, via Wikipedia/Nypa fruticans), and confirming Hilairanthus bicolor (Standl.) Cornejo in Colombia (POWO) and the description of Pelliciera benthamii (Triana & Planch.) Cornejo from Panama (Cornejo, Havard Papers in Botany, 2020), it can be concluded that there are 10 species of mangroves in the New World, nine in South America — seven of them occur in Brazil: Rhizophora mangle L., R. racemosa G.Mey., R. harrisonii Leechm., Conocarpus erectus L., Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C.F. Gaertn., Hilairanthus schaueriana (Stapf & Leechm. ex Moldenke) Cornejo and H. germinans (L.) Cornejo. The exceptions are H. bicolor from Pacific coast from Mexico to Colombia, and the two species of Pelliciera.
However, with 8 spp. of mangroves, the country with the greatest diversity on species, genera and families in the continent is Colombia.
The excellent work brings other remarkable data. One is that Brazil has the 3rd largest area of mangroves in the world (smaller only than Indonesia with c. 1/5 of the mangroves on Earth in this country, and Australia, equivalent to the area of mangroves of all other South American countries combined, with 7 ⁒ of the world total, and tied with Nigeria; on p. 43 refers to mangrove trees over 45 m high in the mouth of the Amazon, in the genera Rhizophora L. and Hilairanthus Tiegh.
5B SEAGRASSES
SEAGRASSES FROM NEW WORLD
The sea grasses, the only submerge saltwater angiosperms, includes 76 spp. (see maps of all world seagrasses distibution for family in MU Gumusay et al., European Journal of Remote Sensing, 2018), all belong to the order Alismatales. 10 spp. occur in South America in six genera: three mono-represented in the New World by Syringodium filiforme Kütz (Cymodoceaceae), Thalassia testudinum Banks & Sol. ex K.D.Koenig (Hydrocharitacae) and Heterozostera chilensis J.Kuo (Zosteraceae); the other three genera (Ruppia, Haliophila, Halodule) cover the six Brazilian sea grass: Ruppia maritma L. (Ruppiaceae, widely distributed), Halophila decipiens Ostenf., H. baillonis Asch. ex Dickie (Hydrocharitaceae), Halodule wrightii Asch., H. beaudettei (Hartog.) Hartog., and H. emarginata Hartog. (Cymodoceaceae the only endemic to Brazil) Photos of the 6 can be seen in Bate Papo com Netuno. In addition to all of these nine, there are also in South America Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande (TROPICOS) mentioned for Argentina, and R. filifolia (Phil.) Skottsb.(TROPICOS) for W South America.
Only two seagrasses are endemic to a country in New World, namely Heterozostera chilensis J.Kuo, endemic to N Chile, and Halodule emarginata Hartog endemic to coast of Brazil.
Copertino et al. (Brazilian Jornal of Oceanography, 2016) describes the state of sea grasses in coasts of Brazil well. Barros et al. (Feddes Repertorium, 2015) reporting the first records for Piauí of Halophila baillonis, and Barros et al. (Feddes Repertorium, 2017) reports the first recordes in Ceará of Halodule emarginata. In 2018 NP da Silva et al. (Feddes Repertorium, 2018) talks about sea grasses of Piauí state, with 5 spp. in two genera of two families.
| FAMILY | SPECIES | BRAZIL | NOTES |
| ZOSTERACEAE | Heterozostera chilensis | Chile, found only in three bays: Herradura Bay, Salado Bay and Tongoy Bay. | |
| HYDROCHARITACEAE | Thalassia testudinum | Salt waters of the Caribbean Sea from Florida to Colombia and Venezuela. | |
| Halophila decipiens | Pantropical. | ||
| Halophila baillonis | Costa Rica to N Venezuela, Caribbean, NE Brazil (Paraíba, Pernambuco and Piauí states, SEE). | ||
| CYMODOCEACEAE | Syringodium filiforme | Caribbean, Florida to Venezuela. | |
| Halodule wrightii | Cosmopolitan. | ||
| Halodule beaudettei | Madagascar, Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and along the Pacific coast from Panama to Mexico, and a disjunct 5,500 km distant population on NE Brazilian coast. | ||
| Halodule emarginata | ENDEMIC | Brazil, from coasts of Piauí to the northern part of São Paulo state. | |
| RUPPIACEAE | Ruppia maritima | Cosmopolitan. | |
| Ruppia filifolia | Ecuador to Cono Sur. |
For the discovery of seagrass (Halodule wrightii Asch., Cymodoceaceae) in Fernando de Noronha Is. (Pernambuco state, Brazil), see K.M. Magalhães and C.B. Amaral (Aquatic Botany, 2021).
| FAMILY | GENERA | SPECIES | ||||||
| 1 | VENEZUELA | 3 | 5 | 6 | ||||
| 1 | COLOMBIA | 3 | 5 | 6 | ||||
| 1 | BRAZIL | 3 | 3 | 6 | ||||
5C AQUATICS
By Murphy et al. (Aquatic Botany, 2019), exists 3,457 aquatic flowering plants; the region around Distrito Federal and Goiás state in center Brazil is the richest global hotspot for macrophyte α-diversity.
Aquatic strains unique in their groups are some Ludwigia (Onagraceae, such as L. sedoides (Bonpl.) H. Hara) and Phyllanthus fluitans Benth. ex Mull.Arg. (Phyllanthaceae) — however, one of the most interesting aquatic plants in Neotropics is Jasarum steyermarkii G.S.Bunting., a plant with permanently submerged leaves and is the only true example of this life form among neotropical Araceae (unlike tropical Asia, very rich in this habit for Araceae), known from rivers in E Venezuela (Bolivar state) and W Guyana (Croat, Aroideana, 1988). Neptunia (Fabaceae) is morphologically unlike any other mimosoid because of its (semi-)aquatic lifestyle (Koenen et al., American Journal of Botany, 2020).
5D SUCCULENT
Among succulent notes, although some 30 plant lineages have been classified as succulent, only a small subset of those are species-rich and ecologically important elements of arid and semiarid ecosystems worldwide (Arakaki et al., PNAS, 2011). These lineages include the ice plants (Aizoaceae, ~2,000), the spurges (Euphorbia, ~2,100, ~650 of which are succulent), the stonecrops (Crassulaceae, ~1,400), the aloes (Aloe, ~400), the agaves (Agave, ~200), the stapeliads and asclepiads (Apocynaceae/Asclepiadoideae, ~3,700, ~1,150 of which are succulent) and especially the cacti (Cactaceae, ~1,850). Succulents in New World, is the large radiations, are few in Aizoaceae and Asclepiadoideae. Mexico has high diversity in Crassulaceae, Agavaceae and Euphorbiaceae, with few members in South America.
UNKONOWN IN BRAZIL
In addition to the Cactaceae, are the Crassulaceae with Sedum in South America, represented by the rosettes (of obsolete Echeveria) and the erect or prostate forms (of Sedum s.s. and obsolete Villadia). 26 of the 38 spp. of this group in South America are endemic to Peru, and can be seen for Cuzco plants in Pino, Galiano, Vargas & Kamm (Cactus and Succulent Journal, 2017) and for Cajamarca plants in Pino & Cieza (Haseltonia, 2009). In Solanaceae, succulent forms are found only in Sclerophyllax from Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, like S. cynocrambe (Griseb.) Griseb.; and in Nolana from coastal Peru, N Chile and Galapagos, like N. galapagensis (Christoph.) Johnst. (K.Kubitzki, vol. XIV, 2016, pg. 296). The work of Pino et al. (Haseltonia, 2012) discusses a group of succulent Peperomia (Pipearceae) with transparent leaves, restricted to the south of Ecuador and the Peruvian Andes, formed by species that resemble some Crassulaceae or Caryophylalles. The work reinforces Peru as a succulent hotspot in South America.
IN BRAZIL
Asclepiadoideae has few succulent members in New World, only in genera Asclepias (only A. subulata Decaisne at this genus, from North America and Mexico), Ruehssia (3 succulents in New World, Guyana, Venezuela and Brazil one endemic each), Dictyanthus and Matelea, these with nine succulents, known only in Mexico and Central America (Eggli, BOOK, 2002).
Monocots succulents in New World are in Asparagaceae, Amaryllidaceae (Rauhia from Peru), Bromeliaceae, Commelinaceae (Callisia, Tradescantia and Tipogandra, in Brazil occur members of three), Dioscoreaceae (Dioscorea, members in Africa, Mexico, Chile and Brazilian endemic D. basiclavicaulis Rizzini & Mattos-Filho, a high bizarre species, unique in their genus its thickened succulent perennial stems) and Orchidaceae (Eggli, BOOK, 2001).
Some species of Portulaca (Portulacaceae) from the Brazilian savannas are truly succulent (SEE), although they are not listed as such in the principal references.
5E CUSHIONS
Cushion plants represent a special life form which usually has character combinations such as short-node intervals, compact branches, solitary flowers or few-flowered racemes, and dome- or mat-shaped cushions. They are common among perennial herbs growing on high-altitude mountains and are thought to be associated with dry and cold environments, such as the high Andes and Patagonia, Himalayas, and New Zealand Alps. Aubert et al. (Alpine Botany, 2014) updated the cushion plants catalogue in which they recognized 1,309 species of 63 families and 273 genera.
In South America occur (20:38/)280 cushions species, 18 orders in Eudicots (Almanaque Z). By country, the diversities are Venezuela (10:12/21), Colombia (13:20/38), Ecuador (18:28/53), Peru (22:35/72), Bolivia (22:34/64), Argentina (31:67/194) and Chile (30:59/158).
The Top 5 genera (Azorella, Nototriche, Junellia, Pycnophyllum and Benthamiella) composes more than 1/3 of all cushions in South America (90). None of them occur in Brazil. Some claims for cushions in South America are not on this list: Jalcophila and Aphanactis in Asteraceae (K.Kubitzki, vol. VIII, 2007), Englerocharis (Brassicaceae) from Peru (Al-Shehbaz et al., Kew Bulletin, 2012), Gamocarpha and Moschopsis (Calyceraceae) from Argentina and Chile (Pozner & al., Taxon, 2021). Ribes frankei Weigend & Breitkopf (Grossulariaceae), endemic to mountains of Peru, is the unique cushion-like species among this family (Weigend ey al., Novon, 2010).
Although there is no citation in the literature, many species of Poales do Brazil could be considered cushions, within the current limits adopted, namely Paepalanthus glabrifolius Ruhland (SEE), P. pseudotortilis Ruhland, P. acantholimon Ruhland (SEE), P. caparoensis Ruhland (SEE), Leiothrix plantago (Mart.) Giul. and L. curvifolia Ruhland (Eriocaulaceae), Abolboda killipii Lasser and A. americana (Aubl.) Lanj. (Xyridaceae) — all of these are endemic to Brazil except the Abolboda species, which extend into the adjacent countries of the Guiana Shield. In Mexico there are only 13 cushions in six genera of two families: Cactaceae with Echinocereus (2), Epitelantha (1), Ferocactus (1) and Mammilaria (7), and Caryophyllaceae with Arenaria bryoides Willd. ex D.F.K.Schltdl. and Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl.
5F UNDERGROUD ORGANS
Pausas et al. (New Phytologist, 2018) list 2,116 spp. in various categories of plants with underground organs, as lignotuber and xylopods (266), many of then from savannas from Brazil. For a complete Excel link, see TABLES1.
Basal burls are cited for Rubiaceae (Palicourea), Salicaceae (Cesaeria) and Fabaceae (Mimosa, Stryphnodendron); woody rhizomes in Annonaceae (Annona), Celastraceae (Maytenus), Chrysobalanaceae (Parinari), Ericaceae (Vaccinium), Erythroxylaceae (Eythroxylum), Fabaceae (Clitoria, Mimosa), Cyrillaceae (Cyrilla), Myricaceae (Morella), Malpighiaceae (Byrsonima), Solanaceae (Solanum) and Sapotaceae (Pouteria); taproot tuber for Apiaceae (Klotzschia), Apocynaceae (Prestonia), Bixaceae (Cochlospermum), Caricaceae (Jacaratia), Euphorbiaceae (Manihot), Fabaceae (Eriosema), Lamiaceae (Amasonia) and Moraceae (Dorstenia); lignotuber from Anacardiaceae (Lythraea), Asteraceae (Podanthus), Lauraceae (Cryptocarya), Monimiaceae (Peumus), Quillajaceae (Quillaja) and Salicaceae (Azara); rhizophores in Asteraceae (Chrysolaena, Gyptis, Orthopappus, Smallanthus) and Smilacaceae (Smilax); stems tubers from Asteraceae (Lessingianthus, Trixis); roots crown from Aquifoliaceae (Ilex), Asteraceae (Baccharis, Gyptis, Lessingianthus, Piptocarpha), Connaraceae (Rourea), Fabaceae (Mimosa, Periandra, Vachelia), Hypericaceae (Hypericum), Melastomataceae (Miconia), Primulaceae (Myrsine) and Proteaceae (Gevuina, Roupala); xylopodium for Acanthaceae (Poikilacanthus, Ruellia), Amaranthaceae (Froelichia, Gomphrena, Pfaffia), Anacardiaceae (Anacardium), Annonaceae (Annona, Duguetia), Apocynaceae (Asclepias, Blepharodon, Hemipogon, Mandevilla, Oxypetalum, Prestonia), Aristolochiaceae (Aristolochia), Asteraceae (Aldama, Aspilia, Baccharis, Calea, Chresta, Chromolaena, Chrysolaena, Dimmerostemma, Disynaphia, Elephanthopus, Eupatorium, Gyptis, Isostigma, Jungia, Lessingianthus, Mikania, Moquiniastrum, Ophyrosporum, Panphalea, Pterocaulon, Riencourtia, Stenocephalum, Trichogonia, Vernonanthura, Wedelia), Bignoniaceae (Anemopaegma, Jacaranda), Bixaceae (Cochlospermum), Cordiaceae (Varronia), Calophyllaceae (Kielmeyera), Caryophyllaceae (Polycarpaea), Celastraceae (Peritassa, Salacia, Tontelea), Convolvulaceae (Ipomoea, Distimake), Erythroxylaceae (Erythroxylum), Euphorbiaceae (Acalypha, Croton, Manihot, Microstachys, Sapium, Tragia), Fabaceae (Aeschynomene, Andira, Bauhinia, Betencourtia, Calliandra, Centrosema, Cerradicola, Chamaecrista, Clitoria Collaea, Crotalaria, Desmanthus, Harpalyce, Microptilium, Mimosa, Nanogalactia, Stylosanthes, Tephrosia), Gesneriaceae (Sinningia), Lamiaceae (Eriope, Glechon, Hyptis, Medusantha, Ocimum), Lythraceae (Cuphea, Diplusodon), Malpighiaceae (Byrsonima, Camarea, Tetrapterys), Malvaceae (Eriotheca, Krapovickasia, Waltheria, Wissadula), Menispermaceae (Cissampelos), Martyniaceae (Craniolaria), Melastomataceae (Chaetogastra, Piptolepis), Oleaceae (Menodora), Orobanchaceae (Buchnera), Passifloraceae (Passiflora, Piriqueta), Polygalaceae (Monnina), Rhamnaceae (Crumenaria), Rubiaceae (Declieuxia, Galianthe), Solanaceae (Schwenckia), Verbenaceae (Casselia, Lantana and Lippia), Sapindaceae (Serjania), Vitaceae (Cissus, Clematicissus) and Sapotaceae (Pradosia).
Smilax (Smilacaceae) is the only Monocot in this list.
Aditional forms includes citation of Caryocar brasiliense Cambess. (Caryocaraceae) in White (Gardens Bulletin Singapure, 1976); fire-adapted rhizomatous forms of Myrtaceae (can be found in Eugenia in southern Africa, in several species of Eucalyptus in Australia, and in Eugenia, Campomanesia and Psidium in the Brazilian and Bolivian savannas, K.Kubitzki, vol. X, 2011, pg. 212); Deveccchi et al. (Phytotaxa, 2018) considered that at least 5 spp. of Homalolepis (Simaroubaceae) are geoxylic. Xylopodiuns also occur in Cambessedesia in Melastomataceae (Fidanza & Almeda, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2011). By K.Kubitzki (VIII, 2007), Soaresia and Gaillardia (Asteraceae) from Brazil to Cono Sur also has xylopodia. Eriosema (Fabaceae) also has xylopodium (Cândido et al., Phytotaxa, 2014). In Vochysiaceae, some Vochysia also has xylopodia (Paulo Oliveira & Peter Gibbs, Journal of Tropical Ecology, 1994).
Simon & Pennington (International Journal of Plant Sciences 2012) brings some complementary reviews on the topic. Revermann et al. (Checklist, 2017) provides an analysis of geoxylics of Angola. Davies et al. (New Phytologist, 2014, well illustrated) gives a very general and detailed analysis of the geoxylics of Africa as a whole.
5G MYRMECOPHYTES
Domatium-bearing plants are present in one family of ferns, unknown in gymnosperms, and generally widespread in angiosperms, although they are absent in basal eudicots. The higher eudicots, however, contain the majority of myrmecophytes, with Rubiaceae having the highest number (162 species), followed by Melastomataceae (144), via Chomicki & Renner (New Phytologist, 2015) For New World, with data from from Guillaume Chonick (Wixsite, 2022), 375 spp. in 51 genera at 22 families occur in New World — all these lineages occur in Brazil, except Mespilodaphne, Encyclia, Myrmecophila, Alexia, Samanea, Vachellia, Besleria, Myrcia, Hoffmania, Tachia, Allomaieta, and Blakea.
Polypodiaceae: Microgramma (5); Piperaceae: Piper (18, only two in Brazil); Lauraceae: Mespilodaphne (only M. macrophylla (Beurl.) Trofimov, from Mexico to Panama), Ocotea (3), Pleurothryrium (4); Siprunaceae: Siparuna (1); Araceae: Philodendron (only P. myrmecophilum Engl., endemic to W Brazil); Orchidaceae: Coryanthes (67), Caularthron (4), Encyclia (only E. belizensis subsp. parviflora (Regel) Dressler & G.E.Pollard from Mexico to Nicaragua); Myrmecophila (9, Mexico to Venezuela, Caribbean); Bromeliaceae: Tillandsia (9); Myrtaceae: Myrcia (only M. madida McVaugh, endemic to Peru); Melastomataceae: Allomaieta (only A. grandiflora Gleason, endemic to Colombia), Blakea (11, Central America to Colombia), Henriettea (only H. cuneata (Standl.) L.O.Williams from from Belize to Colombia), Miconia Ruiz. & Pav. (75, 25 of these in Brazil, 4 endemic); Vochysiaceae: Vochysia (only V. vismiifolia Spruce ex Warm. from northern South America); Urticaceae: Cecropia (47), Coussapoa (only C. asperifolia Trécul from northern South America), Pourouma (2, P. formicarum Ducke and P. myrmecophila Ducke from northern South America are myrmecophytes); Fabaceae: Alexa (only A. cowani Yakovlev, from Venezuela and Guyana), Andira (2, both in Brazil), Macrolobium (only M. acaciifolium (Benth.) Benth. from northern South America), Ormosia (only O. macrophylla Benth. from northern South America), Platymiscium (10), Pterocarpus (only P. amazonum (Benth.) Amshoff from northern South America), Samanea (only S. saman (Jacq.) Merr. from Belize to Venezuela and Ecuador), Tachigali (25), Vachellia (10, all from Mexico to Panamá); Elaeocarpaceae: Sloanea (one undeterminated sp. from tropical America); Euphorbiaceae: Conceveiba (only C. martiana Baill. from norther South America), Sapium (only S. laurifolium (A.Rich.) Griseb. from S Mexico to Brazil); Chrysobalanaceae: Hirtella (7); Salicaceae: Tetrathylacium (only T. macrophyllum Poepp. from Costa Rica to N Brazil); Polygonaceae: Coccoloba (only C. excelsa Benth. from Nicaragua to South America), Magoniella (2), Ruprechtia (2), Symmeria (1), Triplaris (17); Cordiaceae: Cordia (5); Rubiaceae: Duroia (3, all from northern South America), Gleasonia (only G. uaupensis Ducke, endemic to Brazil), Hoffmannia (only H. vesciculifera Standl., from Panamá and Colombia), Palicourea (only P. corymbifera (Müll.Arg.) Standl. from northern South America), Patima (only one now, P. guianensis Aubl. from Brazil and Guianas), Remijia (2, R. glomerata Huber and R. physophora Benth. ex K.Schum. from N Brazil and Venezuela); Gentianaceae: Tachia (T. guianensis Aubl., from Guianas); Gesneriaceae: Besleria (only B. formicaria Nowicke, from Costa Rica to Colombia); Solanaceae: Hawkesiophyton (1, H. ulei (Dammer) Hunz.), Markea (2, M. formicarum Dammer and M. longiflora Miers).
Additionally, we recognizes Merianthera (Melastomataceae) in this list, with a myrmecophtes species from Brazil (Michelangeli, PCAS, 2010).
5H DISSECATION TOLERANTS
Mark et al. (American Journal of Botany, 2021) lists all documented dissecation tolerant (DTs, ressurgente in portuguese) species, among six orders. Reviewing the names by POWO, there are 222 spp. in 35 genera along 10 families Members dissecation-tolerant of Asparagales, Myrothamnaceae, Gesneriaceae, Linderniaceae and Plantaginaceae also occur only in Old World. In New World dissecation-tolerants occur only in five families with 132 spp. of dissecation-tolerants, two dicots, four Poales and 126 Velloziaceae. Brazil has 125 spp., 119 endemic. Brazilian endemic from Velloziaceae correspond to more than half of all world diversity of these plants, and 90,15 ⁒ of all DT's in New World.
Lamiaceae has a single dissecation-tolerant worldwide, Clinopodium giliesii (Benth.) Kuntze, endemic to Chile.
Cactaceae also has a single dissecation-tolerant species, Blossfeldia liliputana Werderm., rom S Bolivia and N Argentina.
In Velloziaceae, all Talbotia and Xerophyta from Africa and Madagascar are dissecation-tolerants. 6 spp. of Barbacenia, 2 of Barbaceniopsis and all Vellozia (118) are DTs, all from Brazil except members of Barbaceniopsis and V. andina Ibisch, R.Vásquez & Nowicki endemic to Bolivia.
In Cyperaceae, the eight DT members of Afrotrilepis, Carex, Coleochloa, Cyperus and Microdracoides are found only in Africa to Seychelles and Madagascar, Egypt to Kazakhstan. Members of South American Trilepis (Porembski and Barthlott, Plant Ecology, 2000), Cephalocarpus, Bulbostylis and Everardia (Porembski, Aliso, 2006) also maybe DT, but no details are available concerning their desiccation tolerance. Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl (pantropical) is the only plenity recognized DT of Cyperaceae in New World.
In Poaceae, all 24 DT's species of Micrachne, Poa, Eragrostiella, Eragrostis, Oropetium, Tripogon occur only in tropical Africa to tropical Asia and Australia. In New World occur only members of Sporobolus (six DTs, S. atrovirens (Kunth) Kunth endemic to Mexico, remaining six from Old World), Tripogonella (3, 2 in Old World and T. spicata (Nees) P.M.Peterson & Romasch. from Texas to Argentina and Brazil) and Microchloa (3 DTs, 2 in Old World and M. kunthii Desv. from Africa, tropical Asia and from USA to Argentina, unknown in Brazil).
5I PROSTRATE HABIT
Ilex prostrata Groppo (Aquifoliaceae, Brazil) stands out in its genus for being the only one with a prostrate habit in the country (Groppo & Pirani, Kew Bulletin, 2002).
5J SHRUBBY
Mollugo ulei (Pilger) Thulin, a Molluginaceae endemic to a small range in northern Bahia state, is the only one of its genus with a shrubby habit (Thulin & al., Taxon, 2016).
5K EPHEDROIDS
One of the most bizarre habits in Verbenaceae is ephedroid, present only in the three genera of tribe Neosparoneae, from S Bolivia, Argentina and Chile (O'Leary, American Journal of Botany, 2010).
5L JUNCOID PLANTS
The peculiar juncoid nature of the culm internodes septate lumina in Glaziophyton, endemic to Rio de Janeiro state, apparently has not been described for any other known bamboo species (Fernandez et al., Checklist, 2012).
5M CAULIROSULAS
Caulirosulate Asteraceae in Brazil occur in Prestelia, Proteopsis and Minasia, all in Lychnophorinae clade (Loeuille, Systematic Botany, 2015).
5N PECULIAR GROWTH
There is very little information about plants that grow towards the ground; perhaps the most remarkable species is Tillandsia reclinata E.Pereira & Martinelli (Bromeliaceae), endemic to exposed rocks in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (POWO/Bromeliaceae | Expedição Fitogeográfica/2018).
5P MIMICRY
Plant mimicry is something neglected in the literature, but it is worth mentioning Macrocentrum droseroides Triana from Venezuela and Guyana, a Drosera-like species of Melastomataceae (SEE), and Moldenhawera (Fabaceae, genus endemic to Brazil), which mimics some Malpighiaceae (Queiroz et al., PRE-PRINT, 2023).
6 MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES
In addition to the remarkable features of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, inflorescences, fruits, seeds, and other plant structures, and beyond the exceptional genera and species already mentioned, several other noteworthy examples from South American plants deserve special attention.
6A INDUMENTUM
Gunnera herteri Osten, known only from S Brazil and Uruguay, is a unique glabrous species in Gunneraceae (K.Kubitzki, vol IX, 2007, p. 180). Portulaca hirsutissima Cambess. from Brazil and P. confertifolia Hauman from Argentina (Portulacaceae) has hairs in leaf limb, unique with this feature in New World Portulacaceae, like some African species (Santos et al., Phytotaxa, 2016).
6B DEEPST ROOTS
In List of Superlative trees: Deepest and Longest Tree Roots, the deepest roots documented are cited in two examples of Moraceae and Asparagaceae in Africa We don't have any information about the deepest documented roots for South American flora.
6C BULBS AND TUBERS
Pitcairnia encholirioides L.B.Sm. (Bromeliaceae), endemic to SE Brazil, is a very rare bromeliad and is probably the only record in the literature of typical bulbs in its family (G Martinelli & RC Forzza, Revista Brasileira de Botânica, p05). Pitraea (Peru and Bolivia to Argentina and Chile) is unique in Verbenaceae in being a tuber-bearing perennial herb (O'Leary, American Journal of Botany, 2010).
6D WOOD
Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex Lam.) Urb. (Malvaceae), native to almost all tropical America, has one of the lightest woods available, with a density of only between 0.04 and 0.34 g/cm³ (Wikipedia). Dinizia excelsa Ducke (Fabaceae), from N Brazil, Guiyana, Suriname and French Guiana, has the highest average species-level wood density in the Amazon of 0.94 g/cm³ (Gorgens et al., Global Change Biology, 2020).
6E PHYLLOCLADES
All South American phyllocladous Phyllanthus are endemic to Brazil (Santiago et al., Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008).
6F/1 LARGEST LEAVES
The largest leaves belong to either Gunnera manicata Linden ex. André (Gunneraceae, endemic to Brazil), the palms Raphia regalis Becc. from mainland Africa, Manicaria saccifera Gaertn. from tropical America (including Brazil), Marojejya darianii J.Dransf. & N.W.Uhl from Madagascar, Johannesteijsmannia altifrons (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) H.E.Moore from SE Asia, or the South American waterlily Victoria spp., depending on criteria (Garden of Eaden).
IN BRAZIL
Despite a generalized imprecision about parameters to define which is the largest sheet in the world, it is undeniable that one of the largest single sheet belongs to the magnificent and exclusive Brazilian Coccoloba gigantifolia E. Melo, C.A. Cid Ferreira & R. Gribel (Polygonaceae), known only from Madeira river valley in Amazonas and Rondonia states; your leaves can reach incredible 0.6–2.5 × 0.5–1.44 m (Melo et al., Acta Amazonica, 2019). Elvasia gigantifolia Fraga & M.M. Saavedra, endemic to Brazil, has the largest leaves in the genus (Fraga & Saavedra, Novon, 2006). Hirtella magnifolia Prance (Chrysobalanaceae, Brazil, Peru and Colombia) has the largest leaves of any species in this genus, reaching up to 40 cm on fertile branches (GT Prance, Acta Amazonica, 1978).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Chusquea spectabilis L.G.Clark (Poaceae), from Venezuela to Ecuador, has leaf blades reaching 3–4 m in length, the largest leaves known in the grass family (Judziewicz & Clark, Aliso, 2007). Passiflora macrophylla Spruce ex Mast. from Colombia and Ecuador has the largest leaves in the entire Passifloraceae, ranging up to 1 m long (Hilgenhof, Sibbaldia, 2012). Grias L. (Lecythidaceae) possibly has the largest leaves of Ericales; all species have leaves more than 1 m long (NYBG), but only two have bigger leaves, G. angustipetala Cornejo & S.A. Mori (Ecuador) and G. purpuripetala S.A. Mori & J.D. García-Gonz. (Colombia, 150–200 × 42–75). Ternstroemia washikiatii Cornejo & C.Ulloa (Pentaphylacaceae, Ecuador) has the largest leaves (21–33 × 8.5–11 cm) in the genus (Cornejo & Ulloa, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2016).
Bajo Calima (W Colombia) has species with putatively the largest leaves known in the world for their respective families, including Schlegelia dressleri A. Gentry (Schlegeliaceae), Psittacanthus gigas Kuijt (Loranthaceae, leaves 50–100 cm long), Moquilea gentryi Prance (Chrysobalanaceae), Guarea cartaguenya Cuatrec. (Meliaceae), Iryanthera megistophylla A.C. Smith (Myristicaceae), Ilex sp. nov. (leaves 15–25 × ca. 10 cm, Aquifoliaceae), and possibly Protium amplum Cuatr. (Burseraceae) and Macrolobium archeri Cowan (Fabaceae, also occurring in Ecuador) (Gentry, Caldasia, 1986); some of these species also occur in Panama and Ecuador.
6F/2 BLADES
The unique leaves of Saccifolium bandeirae Maguire & Pires (Gentianaceae) from Mount Neblina in N Brazil and S Venezuela are not found in any other plant — they look like upside-down small sacs with a round opening (Gentian Rutgers). Passiflora (Passifloraceae) has the greatest variation in leaf blade morphology of any plant genus (Bernaci et al., Systematic Botany, 2014).
6F/3 PHYLOTAXY
Tetrameranthus (Annonaceae) is quite aberrant from all other genera of the family because of its spirally arranged (instead of distichous) leaves (Maas et al., PhytoKeys, 2019). Bagassa Aubl. (Moraceae), known only from N Brazil, Guyana and Suriname, is the only genus with opposite leaves in the family (POWO | Moraceae). The unusual leaf arrangement of Sellocharis paradoxa Taub., endemic to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, with 5–7 leaflet-like structures in a whorl at the nodes, is unmatched in Fabaceae (POWO | Sellocharis). Yanomamua J.R. Grant, Maas & Struwe, endemic to Serra do Aracá, Amazonas, Brazil, is unique in Gentianaceae as an herb with sessile, subcordate, pandurate (fiddle-shaped) leaves and inflorescences composed of oppositely paired solitary flowers situated in the axils of the upper three leaf pairs (Grant et al., Harvard Papers in Botany, 2006).
6F/4 SIMPLE/COMPOUND
IN BRAZIL
Disciphania cubijensis (R. Knuth) Sandwith is the only Menispermaceae in South America with non-simple (palmately compound) leaves (forests of N Brazil, Peru and Bolivia; POWO | Menispermaceae). Diamantina lombardii Novelo, C.T. Philbrick & Irgang (Podostemaceae, endemic to Brazil) is the only New World member of the family with digitate leaves (Philbrick et al., Systematic Botany, 2004). Paullinia unifoliolata Perdiz & Ferrucci (Sapindaceae) from S Bahia is the only strictly unifoliolate species in the genus; other recognized species may bear both unifoliolate and compound leaves (Perdiz et al., Brittonia, 2012). Didymopanax confusus (Marchal) Fiaschi & G.M. Plunkett (Araliaceae; formerly Schefflera megacarpa A. Gentry; Colombia, Peru and N Brazil) apparently has the largest number of leaflets of any New World Araliaceae (Gentry, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 1981).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
In Araceae, Anaphyllopsis pinnata A. Hay (Venezuela, known only from the type collection) is the only New World araceous plant with truly compound pinnate leaves (K. Kubitzki, vol. IV, 1998, p. 27). Rhytidanthera from Colombia and Venezuela is the only genus of Ochnaceae with compound leaves (Reinales & Parra-O, BJLS, 2020). Despite being remarkable for its large leaves, Pentagonia Benth. also includes the only Rubiaceae species with normal mature leaves that are pinnately lobed to deeply pinnatifid, endemic to Costa Rica. In the New World, occasional individuals of some species of Simira Aubl. may also have pinnatifid leaves, and a few species of Cruckshanksia Hook. & Arn. have leaves deeply and digitately 2- or 3-lobed (Hammel, Phytoneuron, 2015).
6F/5 VENATION
The typical melastome leaf venation is absent in several New World groups: Alloneuron (Colombia and Peru; semicraspedodromous or mixed craspedodromous venation), members of the Guayana Highlands or the Brazilian Plateau with ericoid leaves, the subfamily Memecyloideae, Bellucia nigricans (Hook.f.) Penneys, Michelang., Judd & Almeda (endemic to Brazil), and a few Caribbean species of Henriettea (Michelangely et al., International Journal of Plant Sciences, 2011).
6F/6 PETIOLES
Petiolate leaves in Bromeliaceae are very rare, being known only in Bromelia, Disteganthus, Cryptanthus and Pitcairnia (RF Monteiro, A.Mantovani & RC Forzza, Rodriguésia, 2015). Steyermarkochloa (monotypic, N Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela) is unique in Poaceae for having a cylindrical petiole, a flattened blade, and the absence of a ligula (Gerrit & Ellis, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 1984).
6F/7 LEAF EFFECTS
Some Eremitis (10, E Brazil) are the only bamboos (Poaceae) known to have blue iridescence on the leaves (Ferreira et al., Phytotaxa, 2016).
6F/8 ERICOID LEAVES
Ericoid leaves (rolled and folded so that a groove is present on the abaxial leaf surface) occur in plants from several open biomes of South America. They are found, for example, in some Melastomataceae, Ochnaceae (the ericoid-muscoid leaves of the Sauvagesia elegantissima complex), Malpighiaceae, and Asteraceae from the Brazilian savannas.
6F/9 VARIEGATED LEAVES
For the diversity of variegated leaves, see Zhang et al. (Flora, 2020), which provides a classification and a highly illustrated overview of the diversity of plants with this leaf-coloring pattern. A total of 1,710 angiosperm species belonging to 356 genera and 78 families are reported as naturally bearing variegated leaves. Orchidaceae (252), Bromeliaceae (245), Begoniaceae (221), Araceae (127), and Asparagaceae (80) are the five richest families, together representing approximately 5/9 of the total number of species surveyed. Among genera, Begonia (Begoniaceae) has the highest number of species with variegated leaves (221), followed by Paphiopedilum (Orchidaceae, 67), Neoregelia (Bromeliaceae, 62; endemic to Brazil), Trifolium (Fabaceae, 41), Asarum (Aristolochiaceae, 38), Aechmea (Bromeliaceae, 36), Goeppertia (Marantaceae, 28), Persicaria (Polygonaceae, 27), Ledebouria (Asparagaceae, 25), Gasteria (Asphodelaceae, 23), and Mussaenda (Rubiaceae, 23). These eleven genera account for approximately 35 ⁒ of all species with naturally variegated leaves. For a comprehensive treatment of Orchidaceae (about 800 species in 101 genera), see Schuiteman (Rheedea, 2021).
6G CALYCOPHYLLOUS
Pterophyllous calycophylls in New World Rubiaceae occur only in Cosmocalyx (1, Mexico) and Kerianthera (2, endemic to Brazil) in Cinchonoideae; Cruckshanksia (7, Argentina and Chile) in Rubioideae; Bathysa , Calycophyllum, Capirona, Chimarrhis, Pogonopus, Schizocalyx, Simira, Warscewiczia, and Wittmackanthus in Condamineeae (Ixoroideae); and Pteridocalyx in Sipaneeae (also Ixoroideae) (Delprete, Phytotaxa, 2019). All of these genera, except Cosmocalyx, Cruckshanksia and Pteridocalyx, occur in Brazil.
6H/1 LARGEST FLOWERS
Although there is no ready list, SDa considers that the largest flowers of South America (and the New World) are possibly two species of Pachira Aubl. (Malvaceae), with a width up to 66(-71) cm if held horizontally.
IN BRAZIL
Anthurium bovinii Camelo & Nadruz from SW Amazonas state in northern Brazil has the shortest spadix in the genus (Camelo & Nadruz, Systematic Botany, 2022). Coryanthes bruchmuelleri Rchb.f. (Orchidaceae) from N Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia has the heaviest orchid flower, weighing over 100 g each (American Orchid Society). Aristolochia gigantea Mart. & Zucc. (Aristolochiaceae) possibly has the largest flower of this family, up to 36 cm in diameter (Hipólito et al., Botany, 2012) known only in the mountains of Bahia and Minas Gerais states in SE Brazil (Hipólito et al., RBCN, 2015). The most massive flower in a tree possibly belongs to Cereus jamacaru DC. (Cactaceae), endemic to Brazil, with flowers up to 30 cm long by up to 20 cm (8 in) wide (Wikipedia | List of Superlative Trees). Mandevilla longiflora (Desf.) Pichon from Bolivia to Uruguay and S Brazil has the longest corolla tubes in Apocynaceae, reaching up to 17 cm (Simões et al., Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2006). Preskia nemorosa Rojas Acosta from Brazil and adjacent Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay has the largest flowers in the genus (Butterworth & Wallace, Systematic Botany, 2005). Capsicum hunzikerianum Barboza & Bianchetti (Solanaceae), endemic to the Atlantic Forest in Brazil, has the largest flowers in the genus, reaching up to 1.6 cm long (Barboza & Bianchetti, Systematic Botany, 2005).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
The third largest flower by width in the New World is possibly Victoria boliviana Magdalena & L.T.Sm (Nymphaeaceae), endemic to the flood plains of the Llanos de Moxos, Mamoré watershed, E Bolivia, with a diameter of up to 36 cm. Psittacanthus longiflorus Kuijt (Loranthaceae), known only from Amazonas in Peru, has unusually long flowers (to 17 cm), the longest known for this genus (Kuijt, Novon, 2014). Passiflora antioquiensis H.Karst. (Passifloraceae), endemic to Colombia, possibly has the largest flower in this family (SDa, IMAGE).
6H/A SMALLEST FLOWERS
Pseudobombax minimum Carv.-Sobr. & L.P. Queiroz (Malvaceae) from central Brazil may be promptly recognized by its extremely reduced flowers (to 6 cm long) and fruits (to 5.5 cm long), the smallest recorded for this genus (Carvalho-Sobrinho & Queiroz, Novon, 2010). Antidaphne from tropical America has the smallest flowers in Santalaceae (González et al., Australian Journal of Botany, 2021).
6H/C PETAL COLOR
IN BRAZIL
The the genera from the tribe Griffinieae, Griffinia, Worsleya and Cearanthes, all endemic to Brazil are, along with Lycoris Herb. (E & SE Asia, tribe Lycorideae), the only members of Amarylloideae to develop blue flowers (Wikipedia | Griffineae). Colorful elements in flowers of Eriocaulaceae are reported only in some populations of Syngonanthus umbellatus (Lam.) Ruhland in N Pará state, Brazil, which have remarkably bright blue anthers (Andrino et al., Ecology, 2022). Elvasia kollmannii Fraga & M.M. Saavedra (Ochnaceae), endemic to Brazil, has flowers with white petals, a unique character in this genus (Fraga & Saavedra, Novon, 2006). Ouratea cassinefolia (DC.) Engl., endemic to Pará and Maranhão states, and O. cauliflora Fraga & Saavedra from Espírito Santo state, are the only ones in the genus with white flowers (Fraga & Saavedra, Phytotaxa, 2014). Diplusodon virgatus Pohl (Lythraceae), from Brazil and Bolivia, is the only species (among 93 spp.) in this genus with white flowers (Cavalcanti, Fontqueria, 2007).
UNKNOWN BRAZIL
Few (or no) flowers are naturally black, and there is no formal listing in the literature. There are, however, many references to cultivated forms. Some very dark colored flowers are Lisianthius nigrescens Schltdl. & Cham. (Gentianaceae, Mexico to Guatemala, SEE) and Maxillaria schunkeana Campacci & Kautsky (Orchidaceae, endemic to SE Brazil, Google Images). Some photos (SEE) suggest Ruehssia heringeri (E.Fourn) F.Esp.Santo & Rapini (Apocynaceae, widely in tropical America) has black flowers, although this is not seen in other photos (SEE).
6H/D REPRODUCTIVE FLORAL PARTS
IN BRAZIL
Ephedranthus dimerus J. C. Lopes, Chatrou & Mello-Silva (Annonaceae) from Brazil is the only species of the genus with dimerous flowers (Lopes et al., Brittonia, 2014). Tacca J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. (12, Taccaceae), with 11 species in the Old World and one in N South America, has a well-developed anther following the Dicotyledon model, which among Monocots occurs only in Tacca and Acorus L. (K. Kubitzki, vol III, 1998, p. 110). Lacandonia E. Martínez & Ramos (Triuridaceae), with one species in S Mexico and another in NE Brazil, are the only plants with stamens in the center of the flower surrounded by apocarpous carpels (Neotropical Triuridaceae). Griffinia Ker Gawl., endemic to Brazil, has a true hypanthium in the flower, unique with this feature among Amaryllidaceae, though absent in some species (Meerow & Tombolato, Acta Horticulturae, 2002). Lithachne P.Beauv. (Poaceae) from tropical America has tooth-shaped female florets that are unique in the grass family (Judziewicz & Clark, Aliso, 2007). The fimbriate-glandular wing petals of Petaladenium urceoliferum Ducke (Fabaceae), known only from Amazonas state in N Brazil, are unique in this family (Prenner et al., American Journal of Botany, 2015). Spiraled anthers are a very rare feature, cited in few groups — e.g., some extra-South American members of Liliaceae and Pittosporaceae, across the genera Merremia and (possibly) Distimake (Convolvulaceae), Centaurium, Chironia (Gentianaceae), Spiranthera (Rutaceae), Spirotheca and Spirabutilon (Malvaceae), and Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng. among Arecaceae (Krapov., Bonplandia, 2009); the last six genera occur in South America, and the isolated species Spirabutilon is endemic to Brazil.
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
The only neotropical dimerous Lauraceae is Yasunia (2, Lauraceae), from Ecuador and Peru (van der Werff & Nishida, Novon, 2010). Tacarcuna amanoifolia Huft. from Colombia and Peru has 14–19 stamens, among the highest numbers in Phyllanthaceae (Hoffman et al., Kew Bulletin, 2006).
6H/E PETAL SHAPES AND ZYGOMORPHY
IN BRAZIL
Davilla bilobata Aymard, from Bahia state in Brazil ,is the unique species in this genus with lobulate petals (Aymard, Novon, 2009). Pereskia stenantha F. Ritter, endemic to E Brazil, is unique in the genus due to its urceolate corolla (Butterworth & Wallace, Systematic Botany, 2005). Two Rubiaceae from Brazil and adjacent countries break the 'normality' of flowers in this family: Dialypetalanthus Kuhlm., with distinct petals (unlike all other Rubiaceae) and many more stamens (15 to 25) than corolla lobes, and Riodocea Delprete, with 13–15-merous corollas, representing the highest merosity in the family (Delprete & Jardim, Rodriguésia, 2012). Urceolate corollas in Capsicum (Solanaceae) occur in only two species from the Andes and in the Brazilian endemic C. friburgense Bianchetti & Barboza (Barboza & Bianchetti, Systematic Botany, 2005). Bidens campanulata Bringel & T. B. Cavalc., endemic to central Brazil, is the single species of this genus in South America with campanulate flowers (Bringel et al., Systematic Botany, 2019).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Several members of Amaryllidaceae-Allioideae from Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina (Gilliesia Lindl. and Miersia Lindl.) have zygomorphic flowers superficially resembling some Orchidaceae, which is uncommon or unknown in the rest of the family on the continent (Rudall et al., Am. J. Bot., 2002).
6H/I SCENT
The flowers of Drosera amazonica Rivadavia, A.Fleischm. & Vicent., endemic to N Amazonas state, Brazil, are sweetly perfumed — a character this species shares with at least four more New World species of Drosera: D. arenicola Steyerm., D. felix Steyerm. & L.B. Sm., D. kaieteurensis Brumm.Ding., and D. solaris A. Fleischm., Wistuba & S. McPherson, all of which are highland species from the Guayana Shield north of the Amazon (Rivadavia et al., Ecotropica, 2009).
6H/J DIOECY
The most complete work on dioecy is Renner & Ricklefs (American Journal of Botany, 1995), noting that 7–10 ⁒ of the world's flora is dioecious. In relative terms, dioecy is concentrated in Pandanales, Alismatales, and some lineages of Malpighiales, Malvales, and Magnoliales. Families with the highest concentrations of dioecious genera in both absolute and relative terms are Menispermaceae (100 ⁒ of the genera are dioecious), Myristicaceae (78 ⁒), Moraceae (62 ⁒), Urticaceae (52 ⁒), Anacardiaceae (50 ⁒), Monimiaceae (47 ⁒), Euphorbiaceae (39 ⁒), and Cucurbitaceae (32 ⁒). Of the 959 dioecious genera, 217 occur in the Neotropics, 402 in the Paleotropics, 86 are pantropical, and 149 are found exclusively in the temperate zone.
IN BRAZIL
Dioecy in Bromeliaceae has been reported for three groups: some populations of taxa in the genus Catopsis, Aechmea maria-reginae H. Wendland (America Central), and in the monospecific genus Androlepis (1, (America Central) in Bromelioideae; Hechtia in Hechtioideae; some Dyckia in Pitcairnioideae; and Cottendorffia, endemic to Brazil, in Navioideae (Morillo et al., Rev. Biol. Trop., 2008).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
According to Almeda & Dorr (PCAS, 2006), 37 species of Melastomataceae are dioecious, all in Miconia, mainly from the northern Andes (25 from Ecuador to Bolivia, 3 of them reaching Colombia, 3 endemic to Venezuela, 5 from Mexico and Central America, 3 in the Caribbean, 1 across South America, and 1 across America Central — none in Brazil).
6H/K INFLORESCENCES IN GERAL
Inflorescences of Moraceae are among the most complex in Angiosperms (POWO | Moraceae).
IN BRAZIL
Harperocallis paniculata (L.M. Campb.) L.M. Campb. & Dorr, from the Brazilian side of Mount Neblina, is the only member of the family Tofieldiaceae with compound inflorescences (Campbell, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2010). Coleostachys genipifolia A. Juss., from French Guiana and adjacent N Brazil, has unique spikes among Malpighiaceae (Malpighiaceae/Coleostachys). Rudgea quisquiliae Bruniera & Torres-Leite and R. axilliflora Bruniera & Torres-Leite (Rubiaceae), from Espírito Santo state in SE Brazil, have axillary inflorescences, unique within the genus (Torres-Leite et al., Phytotaxa, 2016). Simple umbels in Apiaceae belong only to Neogoezia (endemic to Mexico) and to the South American genera Oreomyrrhis and Lilaeopsis (Chung et al., NCBI, 2005), the latter native to Brazil.
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Puya raimondii Harms (Bromeliaceae), from the mountains of Peru and Bolivia, is the most massive inflorescence on Earth, standing 8–12 m tall with a diameter of up to 2.4 meters; extra-large specimens can grow as tall as 15 m and the inflorescence can bear approximately 8,000 small white flowers (Guinness World Records). Croton amentiformis Riina (Euphorbiaceae) from Ecuador and N Peru is unique in its large genus for having pendulous and quite dense inflorescences (Riina et al., Webbia, 2015). Monocostus K. Schum. (Costaceae), endemic to the rainforests of E Peru, is the only axillary, uniflorous species in its family (Neotropical Costaceae).
6H/L INFLORESCENCE: FLAGELLIFLORY
Flagelliflory is a very rare phenomenon in nature and has been documented in approxinatelly 20 tree species, most belonging to the Annonaceae and Moraceae families and restricted to the tropical forests of peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Borneo (Polyalthia flagellaris, P. hypogea and Goniothalamus majestatis, all Annonaceae), Africa (Caloncoba flagelliflora in Achariaceae and Isolona cauliflora in Annonaceae) and Americas.
IN BRAZIL
Flagelliflory in Brazil are reported only from Annonaceae, in Duguetia sessilis (Vell.) Maas (endemic to Brazil), D. flagellaris Huber (tropical South America), D. cadaverica Huber (Brazil, Guyana to French Guiana) and Hornschuchia (genus endemic to Brazil).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Flagelliflory in New World outside in Brazil are reported for Mexico (2, both Annonaceae, D. flagelliflora (T.Wendt & G.E.Schatz) G.E.Schatz & Ortíz-Rodr. and Desmopsis terriflora G.E.Schatz, T.Wendt, Ortíz-Rodr. & Mart.-Vel. | Martínez-Velarde, PhytoKeys, 2023), and from Colombia to Bolivia (Erythrochiton fallax Kallunki in Rutaceae, and Anaxagorea floribunda Timmerman in Annonaceae).
6H/M INFLORESCENCE: CAULIFLORY
Cauliflory is an unusual phenomenon among flowering plants that evolved multiple times during the history of angiosperms, mainly tropical, such as Annonaceae (e.g. Annona, Duguetia, Guettarda, Hornschuchia), Myristicaceae (Virola), Phyllanthaceae (Richeria), Putranjivaceae (Drypetes), Achariaceae (Carpotroche, Kuhlmanniodendron), Lecythidaceae (e.g. Couroupita, Grias), Melastomataceae (e.g. Henriettea), Violaceae (e.g. Paypayrola), Fabaceae (e.g. Barnebydendron, Limadendron, Zygia), Solanaceae (e.g. Acnistus, Dyssochroma, Latua), Malvaceae (e.g. Herrania, Pavonia, Quararibea, Theobroma), Moraceae (e.g. Clarisia, Ficus), and Myrtaceae (e.g. Myrciaria, Myrrhinium, Plinia) in South America, among others.
Remarkable records among these are those of Bignoniaceae, where they only occur in Crescentieae and Adenocalymma Mart. ex Meisn. among New World species, with A. cauliflorum L.H. Fonseca & L.G. Lohmann from the Atlantic Forest as the only fully cauliflorous species of the genus, out of five species (all in Brazil) with this characteristic (Fonseca & Lohmann, Systematic Botany, 2017). In Ouratea Aubl. (Ochnaceae), cauliflory occurs only in O. cauliflora Fraga & M.M. Saavedra, from Espírito Santo state (Fraga & Saavedra, Phytotaxa, 2014).
6H/N INFLORESCENCE: EPIPHYLLY
IN BRAZIL
Among Brazilian species, epiphyly is reported for Turnera (Passifloraceae) has epipetiolar inflorescences; Dichapetalaceae have inflorescences in various positions; Bougainvillea (Nyctaginaceae, south-central continent) have inflorescences on the upper surface of the leaves; Spathiphyllum, Spathicarpa, and Spathantheum (Araceae) have inflorescences adnate to their central leaf and Thesium (Santalaceae) have inflorescences at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade.
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Epiphyly in South America outside Brazil includes mainly Phyllonoma (Phyllonomaceae, Venezuela to Peru) with compound inflorescences on the upper surface of the leaves, unique in New World; Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus Planch. (Rutaceae), endemic to Colombia, on the lower surface (unique among all angiosperms, Kallunki, Brittonia, 1992) and Nototriche (Malvaceae) with inflorescences at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade. In addition, according to G. Mathieu et al. (Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008), 12 species of Peperomia in South America (Colombia to Bolivia) have inflorescences at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade.
6I/A NECTAR COLOR
Colored nectar has been documented in 70 species of angiosperms (Dennis M. Hansen, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 2007). In the New World, it occurs in 16 species and 4 morphospecies. Puya alpestris (Poepp.) Gay from Chile and Schwartzia brasiliensis (Choisy) Bedell ex Gir.-Cañas are the only known species with blue or blue-red nectar worldwide. Only Brazil has nectar-colored species in two different families.
IN BRAZIL
Nectar-colored species in New World unknown in Brazil includes Schwartzia brasiliensis (Choisyt) Bedell ex Gir.-Cañas (Marcgraviaceae), endemic to Brazil, with blue nectar; and Capsicum baccatum L. from Peru to S Brazil and Argentina, with yellow nectar.
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Nectar-colored species in New World unknown in Brazil includes Schiedea (Caryophyllaceae), in 4 species from Hawaii with black nectar; Calliandra houstoniana var. calothyrsus (Meisn.) Barneby (Fabaceae) from Mexico to Panama, with yellow nectar; Puya alpestris (Poepp.) Gay (Bromeliaceae), endemic to central Chile, with blue nectar and unique Monocot in this list; 9 species and 4 morphospecies of Jaltomata (Solanaceae) from Peru, one extending to Bolivia, all with red-to-orange nectar; and Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. from Ecuador to Bolivia and C. eximium Hunz. (Solanaceae) from Bolivia to Argentina, these three with yellow nectar.
6I/B NECTAR SPURS
Nectar spurs are slender, tube-like perianth outgrowths, commonly associated with the production and/or containment of nectar, which are found in only 84 (approximately 0.62%) angiosperm genera (Mack, Thesis, 2019). In total, spurred genera in the New World include 28 confirmed genera (excluding Bauhinia) across 13 families, all eudicots except Orchidaceae.
IN BRAZIL
Spurred genera in Brazil includes members in Orchidaceae (Habenaria and Maxillaria | Moré et al., PLoS ONE, 2012), Violaceae (Anchietea, Corynostylis, Noisettia and Viola | Freitas & Sazima, Annals of Botany, 2003), Vochysiaceae (all five New World genera except Mahechadendron), Tropaeolaceae (Tropaeolum) and Lentibulariaceae (Genlisea and Utricularia).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Spurred species in Campanulaceae worldwide occur only from Mexico to Costa Rica across two genera (Koopman & Ayers, American Journal of Botany, 2005). All spurred genera within Ranunculaceae (Aconitum, Delphinium, Aquilegia) and Balsaminaceae (Impatiens) in the New World, plus Lonicera (Caprifoliaceae) and Platanthera (Orchidaceae), occur from Canada to Mexico or Costa Rica. The spurred genera Dactylorhiza, Galearis (Orchidaceae), and Diervilla (Caprifoliaceae) occur in the New World only in Canada and the USA, while Dendrophylax (Orchidaceae) occurs from Mexico to America Centra, Florida, and the Caribbean.
In South America, spurred genera unknown in Brazil at lineages includes Gentianaceae (Halenia | Hagen, Organisms Diversity & Evolution, 2007), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia), Lentibulariaceae (Pinguicula) and Plantaginaceae (Nuttallanthus).
6J POLLINATION
IN BRAZIL
The two modified petals of Krameria Loefl. (Krameriaceae) from all tropical America, related to pollination by Centris bees, are also unique among flowering plants (Neotropical Krameriaceae - General Notes). Callitriche (Plantaginaceae), with 21 spp. in South America, some in Brazil, is the only genus of angiosperms with both aerial pollination and hypohydrophily (Philbrick & Les, Aquatic Botany, 2000).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
The presence of both monads and tetrads in the same genus is very rare; for instance, this feature occurs, e.g., in extra-South American Typha (Typhaceae), Epilobium (Onagraceae), and Podophyllum (Berberidaceae), and in Xanthosoma (Araceae), where all species have pollen in tetrads except three species from Venezuela to Peru (X. paradoxum (Bogner & Mayo) Bogner, X. mariae Bogner & E. G. Gonç., and X. latestigmatum Bogner & E. G. Gonç.), which have pollen in monads. Rhynchotheca (Francoaceae) from Ecuador and N Peru may be the only anemophilous species of Geraniales (POWO | NTK).
6K/A VIVIPARY
Vivipary refers to the germination of seeds while they are still attached to the parent plant. Instead of remaining dormant within the fruit or seed, the embryo begins to grow immediately, producing a seedling before dispersal. This phenomenon occurs mainly in some gymnosperms and in several angiosperm groups, notably mangroves (e.g., Rhizophoraceae), members of Asparagaceae subfam. Agavoideae (e.g., Agave and Furcraea), certain species of Kalanchoe (Crassulaceae) and, under particular conditions, cultivated tomatoes (Solanaceae) and Cannabis (Cannabaceae), among other (Eutrema).
Vivipary in Melastomataceae is reported in 4 genera, Memecylon from Old World, Amphiblemma ciliatum (Gabon, SEE), and six species of three genera in New World: Bertolonia acuminata Gardner, B. carmoi Baumgratz and B. mosenii Cogn., all endemic to Brazil; Macrocentrum minus Gleason and M. vestitum Sandwith, collected in Guyana; and Triolena amazonica (Pilg.) Wurdack from northern South America including Brazil, collected n vivipary only in Peru. In all cases, the seeds germinate inside the upright dehiscent capsule, where the seedlings can be seen, and occasionally, some seedlings can be seen outside the fruit, on the exterior surface of the hypanthium or on the branches (Bacci et al., Int. J. Plant Sci., 2021).
6K/B APOMIXY
For a excellent text abouth apomixis worldwide, with focus in Neotropics, see Fabiana Firetti (Intechopen, 2017); this feature is hardly widely distributed among plants in region. For apomixy in Andes, see Ptáček et al. (Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2023).
6L/A LARGEST FRUITS
IN BRAZIL
The berries of some South American Cissus (Vitaceae), such as C. stipulata Vell. and C. trigona Willd. ex Schult. & Schult.f., both from Brazil and adjacent Bolivia, are the largest fruits of all Neotropical species in the genus (Vitaceae | POWO). Eugenia reperta Sobral & Mazine (Myrtaceae, Minas Gerais state, Brazil) has the largest fruit of this genus, up to 10 cm long (Sobral et al., Phytotaxa, 2022). Didymopanax confusus (Marchal) Fiaschi & G.M.Plunkett (Araliaceae, former Schefflera megacarpa A.Gentry; Colombia, Peru, N Brazil) apparently has the largest fruits of any New World Araliaceae (Gentry, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 1981).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Sacoglottis ovicarpa Cuatrec. from the Chocó region of W Colombia may be the largest-fruited Humiriaceae, as are two species of Compsoneura and two species of Iryanthera of the same region in their respective genera, both Myristicaceae (Gentry, Caldasia, 1986, p12). Zanthoxylum magnifructum Reynel (Rutaceae, Colombia) has the largest fruits of any species in the genus in the New World (Reynel, Novon, 2020). Chionanthus megistocarpus (Oleaceae, Colombia) has the largest fruits for this genus in the Neotropics (4.5–5 cm long; Fernández-Alonso, Phytotaxa, 2016). Solanum sibundoyense (Bohs) Bohs (Solanaceae, Colombia) produces some of the largest fruits known in the Cyphomandra clade (10 ✕ 7 cm; Bohs, Systematic Botany, 1988).
Ternstroemia washikiatii Cornejo & C.Ulloa (Pentaphylacaceae, Ecuador) has the largest fruits in the genus (4.5–5.5 ✕ 6.5–7.7 cm, Cornejo & Ulloa, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2016). Monteverdia multicostata Cornejo & Biral (Celastraceae, Ecuador) has the largest fruits in the genus (up to 3.5 cm long; Cornejo & Biral, Phytotaxa, 2021).
6L/B ODD FRUITS
IN BRAZIL
Fleshy fruits are very rare in some groups — for example, in Malvoideae, they occur only in Anotea, endemic to Mexico, and in Malvaviscus Fabr., a genus of tropical America with one species in Brazil (Fryxell, Brittonia, 1997). In bamboos, this feature occurs only in Old World genera and in three in the New World: Alvimia (3, endemic to Brazil), Olmeca (5, Mexico and America Central), and Guadua (2, G. sarcocarpa Londoño & P.M. Peterson and G. weberbaueri Pilg., from Acre state in W Brazil, N Bolivia, and E Peru | Olivier & Poncy, Candollea, 2009 | Sánchez & Sosa, NCBI, 2015).
Blue fruits are commons in Rubiaceae (e.g. Coccocypselum, Palicourea, Bertiera and Psychotria L) and other families, as Cipocereus (Cactaceae, endemic to Minas Gerais state in Brazil, SEE) and in Miconia (as in M. dentata (D. Don) Michelang./SEE and M. saulensis (Wurdack) Michelang./SEE, taked in French Guiana).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Of the 2,223 Myrtaceae of the New World, only Metrosideros stipularis (Hook. & Arn.) Hook.f. from Argentina and S Chile has capsular fruits — and is also the only non-Myrteae species (belonging to Metrosidereae) in the hemisphere (Lucas et al., Taxon, 2007; Pillon et al., Systematic Botany, 2015). Dactylocardamum (2), endemic to the mountains of Peru, is unique in Brassicaceae for having axillary fruits sandwiched between imbricate leaves (Al-Shehbaz, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1989).
6L/C FRUIT DISPERSAL
Although predominantly anemochoric, Poaceae have evolved other ways to disperse their diaspores, such as zoochory and ballistochory (forcible dispersal). Ballistochory is considered rare within the family and is known only in the sister genera Raddia (8, Brazil, one extending to Venezuela), Sucrea (2, E Brazil), and Piresia (9, northern South America), all of which are South American herbaceous bamboos (Ferreira et al., Brazilian Journal of Botany, 2023). Anemochoric fruits with five 'wings' from Malvaceae-Bombacoideae occur in Aguiaria excelsa Ducke (N Brazil), cited as unique in all angiosperms (Cardoso et al., Neodiversity, 2015). Drosera amazonica Rivadavia, A.Fleischm. & Vicent. (Droseraceae), endemic to N Amazonas state, Brazil, is the unique species of this genus with water-dispersed seeds (Rivadavia et al., Ecotropica, 2009). Strophocactus wittii (K.Schum.) Britton & Rose, in the Amazon rainforest along the high waterline of blackwater rivers rom Venezuela to Peru and N Brazil, has water-dispersed seeds — a feature unique in Cactaceae (Barthlott et al., Plant Systematics and Evolution, 1997).
6L/D AMPHI/GEOCARPY
Based on Tan Dun-Yan, Zhang Yang and Wang Ai-Bo (Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology, 2010), Kaul (Current Science, 2000), Cheplick (Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 1987) and Barker (Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2005), with some recent adaptations, amphigeocarpy occurs in 34 families (with the addition of Loganiaceae) and about 110 genera. In the New World, these features are rare compared to regions in Africa and Asia. 94 spp. in 7 genera of 5 families are amphigeocarpic in South America, highly centered in Brazil and Bolivia. 79 amphigeocarpic spp. across all of these genera and families occur in Brazil.
5 spp. (all from Brazil and unknwon in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela) are the sole amphigeocarpic representatives in their respective genera on the continent, being Zephyranthes americana (Hoffmanns.) Ravenna (Amaryllidaceae) from Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay; Centrosema rotundifolium Mart. ex Benth. from Brazil and Bolivia (Fabaceae, Nikolic et al., Deutscher Tropentag, 2005); Trifolium polymorphum Poir. (Fabaceae) from Peru to E Argentina and S Brazil (Conterato, Thesis, 2009); Cardamine chenopodiifolia Pers. from Brazil, Bolivia, and the Southern Cone (Brassicaceae, the unique Malvid amphigeocarpic in the New World | see Cheplick, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 1983), and Spigelia genuflexa Popovkin & Struwe, endemic to the coast of Bahia state, Brazil (Loganiaceae, the unique case of amphigeocarpy in this family worldwide; see details in Popovkin, PhytoKeys, 2011).
Eremitis (16, Poaceae) is a genus undergoing rapid growth, mainly with subterranean branches and many amphicarpic species, though it remains unclear whether all share this trait. It is endemic to the coastal forests of the Atlantic Forest in E Brazil, mainly in Bahia state — possibly one of only four fully amphigeocarpic genera in the New World, along with Okenia (1, Nyctaginaceae, Mexico to Nicaragua and Florida, USA), Amphicarpum (2, Poaceae, E USA) and Arachis (C & S South America), and the only one endemic to a single country.
Arachis (Fabaceae) is the largest amphigeocarpic lineage that exists — all its 80 species are geocarpic, representing about 4/5 of all amphigeocarpic species in South America, and including all 14 South American amphigeocarpics unknown in Brazil. It has 63 species in Brazil (44 endemic), northern Argentina, Bolivia (its second center of diversity), Uruguay, and Paraguay.
6M LARGEST SEEDS
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Among the 10 largest seeds in Angiosperms (Wikipedia), 5 are from Arecaceae from Africa, SE Asia, Seychelles and Pacific islands, two belong Poaceae and Lauraceae from SE Asia, and three are from South America, being M. oleifera (Triana ex Hemsl.) Ducke from America Central to Ecuador (18 cm ✕ 15 cm ✕ 8 cm) in 3rd position; M. excelsa Benth. from Venezuela and the Guianas in 8th position; and Pelliciera rhizophorae Planch. & Triana (Tetrameristaceae), a mangrove from the Pacific from Costa Rica to Ecuador, and Atlantic (Nicaragua to Colombia) coasts of tropical America in 9th position.
Attalea cuatrecasasiana (Dugand) A.J.Hend., Galeano & R.Bernal (Arecaceae) has fruits up to 14 cm long ✕ 10 cm in diameter — 3rd largest seeds in the palm family after the double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica, Seychelles) and the coconut (Cocos nucifera, Paleotropics), and the largest in the New World (Palmpedia), though some sources consider the Brazilian A. speciosa Mart. as having the largest fruit in this genus (12 ✕ 10 cm | Noblick, BOOK, 2019 | Botanical Auctions).
IN BRAZIL
A careful analysis of the table in Miranda et al. (Forests, 2018, TABLE and PDF) shows that seed 26 of Mora paraensis (Ducke) Ducke measures 8.3 cm long ✕ 4.5 cm wide ✕ 3.8 cm thick. This would place the seeds of this species, endemic to northern Brazil, among the 15 largest in the world — making it the largest seed in Brazil — and reinforcing Mora's dominance in terms of giant seeds.
6N/A LIFE CICLE
Three Brazilian species are unique annual among their groups: Raddiella minima Judz. & Zuloaga among bamboos (Amazonas, Pará and Mato Grosso states, by Filgueiras & Gonçalves, The Journal of the American Bamboo Society, 2004, pg10); Gunnera herteri Osten among Gunnerales, known only from S Brazil and Uruguay (K.Kubitzki, >vol IX, 2007, p180); and Sinningia nordestina Chautems, Baracho & J.A.Siqueira, the unique annual among New World Gesneriaceae (Gesneriad Reference Web), endemic to NE Brazil.
6N/B LONGEVITY
Regarding longevity, Fitzroya cupressoides Hook.f. ex Lindl. (Cupressaceae, Gymnosperma, Argentina and Chile), reaches 3,622 years old, based on a Chilean individual (Wikipedia). Ruy et al. (Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 2013) estimated the age of a xylopodial specimen of Jacaranda decurrens Cham. (Bignoniaceae) — a species native to central Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay — in Itutinga, Minas Gerais, at 3,801 years, making it, according to the publication, one of the oldest native plants of the Neotropics.
An individual of Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze (Lecythidaceae) in Santa Rita do Passo Quatro (São Paulo state, Brazil) is identified by many sources (e.g., Revista Galileu, SEE) as being around 3,000 years old; however, as highlighted by the AVPH Group (SITE), there is contention and controversy surrounding this age, noting that it may not even be 1,000 years old. SDa does not accept this supposed age of 3,000 years.
6P UNUNSUAL HABITATS AND ADAPTATIONS
FIRE
Species of Filgueirasia Guala, Actinoclada verticillata McClure & Soderstr., and Aulonemia effusa (Hack.) McClure, all native to Brazil (some extending into adjacent Bolivia), represent a few bamboos adapted to fire (Alves et al., Rodriguésia, 2015).
SAPROLIGNOPHYLOUS
Many species of Mormodes Lindl. (Orchidaceae) are saprolignophilous herbs, typically growing on decaying, decomposing wood (Blanco et al., Phytotaxa, 2016); however, very little information is available about this growth habitat beyond this genus.
SERPENTINE SOILS
Microlicia macedoi L.B.Sm. & Wurdack and Pterolepis haplostemona Almeda & A.B.Martins (both from Goiás state) are the only Melastomataceae in Brazil known to grow in serpentine soils according to Almeda and Martins (Phytotaxa, 2015). The latter is also the only annual in the family restricted to serpentine soils in the New World. Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive reference on the serpentine flora of Brazil as a whole. Prasad (Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, 2005) provides a brief discussion highlighting Brazil, while Reeves et al. (Plant and Soil, 2007) present a survey on the ultramafic flora of Goiás.
KARST REGIONS
Espírito Santo et al. (Willdenowia, 2018) provide an interesting discussion on Ruehssia (Apocynaceae, formerly Marsdenia R.Br.) growing on limestone outcrops in central Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Goiás). For additional notes on plants inhabiting karst landscapes in Brazil, see Bystriakova et al. (Scientific Reports, 2019).
CAVE HABITATS
As for cave plants, a remarkable work by Konno et al. (PLoS ONE, 2018) deals with their diversity in caves in southern China; the Yangzi Cave is the type locality for 8 plants! Pilea cavernicola A.K.Monro, C.J.Chen & Y.G.Wei (Urticaceae) grows in almost complete darkness, receiving less than 3% of full sunlight (Alex K. Monro et al., PhytoKeys, 2012). There is virtually no information on such cave plants in South America, and the closest recorded example is the shade-tolerant Phyllanthus eremitus Funez & Hassemer (Phyllanthaceae, Flora de Santa Catarina), endemic to a small rock wall in Santa Catarina state in S Brazil.
GYPSOPHILOUS
There is little to no documentation regarding the gypsophilic flora of Brazil. A map in Adrián Escudero et al. (PubMed, 2014, p. 4) indicates that gypsiferous soils occur in South America (Peru, Chile, and Argentina), but no reference to the specialized flora of these sites was found—and there may be no true gypsophilic species in Brazil. For the gypsoflora of Mexico, see Johnston (Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1941).
6Q ALTITUDINAL RECORDS
UNKNWON BRAZIL
Barbaceniopsis boliviensis (Baker) L.B.Sm. represents the highest known occurrence of Velloziaceae, growing at 2,900 m in the Bolivian Andes (Ibsch et al., Systematic Botany, 2001). Myrosmodes Rchb.f. (Orchidaceae) is the only genus of its family to grow in the swamps of the high Andes and was recorded at about 5,100 m a.s.l., the highest habitat known to support orchids on Earth (Trujillo et al., Lankesteriana, 2016). Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engel) H.Wendl. grows at the highest elevations in the world for a member of Arecaceae: 3,500 m in Ecuador (F.Borchsenius & M.Moraes, Botánica Económica de los Andes Centrales, 2006). Chusquea aristata Munro (Poaceae), distributed from Colombia to Peru, has the distinction of growing at altitudes up to 4,300 m in Ecuador — the highest known elevation for any bamboo (Judziewicz & Clark, Aliso, 2007). Populations of Polylepis tarapacana Phil. (Rosaceae, Bolivia and the Southern Cone) near Nevado Sajama, Bolivia, grow at about 5,600 m in altitude, making it the highest record of trees in the world and displacing records of Abies squamata Masters (Pinaceae) in SW China (How High Altitude Polylepis Trees Taste the Guinness World Records Wrong, 2016).
IN BRAZIL
The low elevation of the Brazilian territory does not allow for any significant record of species at great heights. The southernmost tepuis Avispa and Mount Neblina, in Venezuela and N Brazil, represent the full elevation range distribution of Heliamphora (Sarraceniaceae): from 860 m for H. neblinae Maguire on Avispa up to 2,993 m for H. hispida Nerz & Wistuba on Mount Neblina, Brazil (Wikipedia | Distribution of Heliamphora).
6R BASAL IN PHYLOGENY
Basal groups at South American species includes Gunnera herteri Osten, basal among Gunneraceae, known only from S Brazil and Uruguay (K.Kubitzki, vol IX, 2007, pg. 180) and Anomochloideae (2/4, tropical America), with genera Anomochloa, endemic to Brazil, and Streptochaeta (Mathews et al., American Journal of Botany, 2000).
6S GENETIC
Combining data from Castiglione & Cremonini (New Trends in Plant Cytogenetics and Cytoembryology, 2012) and Marcussen et al. (Systematic Biology, 2012), only 7 species have the low chromosome number 2n = 4: Zingeria biebersteiniana (Poaceae from Crimea to Kazakhstan and Syria), Colpodium versicolor (Steven) Schmalh. (Poaceae from E Turkey to NW. Iran), Ornithogalum gussonei Ten. (Asparagaceae from Greece to SW Turkey), Rhynchospora tenuis Willd. ex Link (Cyperaceae from Mexico to Argentina, Brazil, and Caribbean), Haplopappus gracilis (Nutt.) A.Gray (Asteraceae from Mexico and USA), Brachyscome dichromosomatica C.R.Carter (Asteraceae from Australia), and Viola modesta Fenzl (Violaceae from W. & Central Asia). Of these, only Rhynchospora tenuis occurs in South America.
IN BRAZIL
Genlisea tuberosa Rivadavia, Gonella & A.Fleischm. (Lentibulariaceae), endemic to E Brazil, has the smallest known angiosperm genome at around 61 Mbp (Guinness World Records). Carex L. (Cyperaceae) has the largest range of chromosome numbers among flowering plants, ranging from n = 6 in C. siderosticta Hance from Japan, China, and Korea, to n = 66 in C. roraimensis Steyerm. from Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela (Rotreklová et al., Preslia, 2011, p2). Anthurium lucidum Kunth, endemic to E Brazil, has a chromosome number of 2n = 124, representing the highest known chromosome number in Anthurium (Aroid).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Bignonia magnifica W.Bull (Bignoniaceae), from Panama to N Venezuela and Ecuador, possesses the longest Lamiid plastome described to date (Fonseca et al., PeerJ, 2022).
6T BIOCHEMISTRY
Haemodoraceae are the only vascular plants to produce phenalenones (specifically aryl-phenalenones), as documented by Simpson (Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 1990) in 10 species across 8 genera. Among New World species, only Xiphidium caeruleum Aubl. (widespread in tropical America) was reported to produce these compounds. Phytomelanins, the black chemical compounds covering seeds, are found only in Asparagales, in the fruits of the Asteraceae genera Heterocoma and Wunderlichia (both endemic to Brazil), and in certain Asteroideae belonging to the tribes Heliantheae and Eupatorieae (Bonifácio et al., Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2019). One of the sweetest known plants is Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni (Asteraceae), native to E Paraguay and adjacent regions of Brazil, which is up to 300✕ sweeter than conventional sugarcane (Kazmi et al., Current Biotechnology, 2019).
An immense diversity of plants in South America are highly toxic, and full detailing is beyond the scope of this text. However, two remarkable monotypic genera can be highlighted: Sarcotoxicum salicifolium (Griseb.) X.Cornejo & H.H.Iltis (Capparaceae), from N Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia, whose fruits are edible when mature if properly cooked, but extremely poisonous when immature or dried (Cornejo, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2009); and Metternichia principes Miers (Solanaceae), endemic to E Brazil and highly toxic to goats (Pedroso et al., Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 2015).
6U SYMBIOSYS
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are a diverse functional group of mutualistic root symbionts that enhance host plant nutrient acquisition, protect against root disease, and mitigate the effects of abiotic stresses. Historically considered restricted to temperate regions, evidence accumulated over the last 50 years demonstrates their presence across most tropical ecosystems.
IN BRAZIL
Gunnera L. is the only known Angiosperma that harbors a cyanobacterial symbiont, namely Nostoc (Villarreal & Renzaglia, American Journal of Botany, 2006).In Brazil, ECM are reported from Gnetum (Gnetaceae), Aldina, Dicymbe (both Fabaceae), Coccoloba (Polygonaceae), Pisonia, Neea, and Guapira (Nyctaginaceae) among others (Smith et al., PLoS ONE, 2013).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
In the Neotropics, several unrelated plant genera have independently evolved the ability to form ECM symbioses with fungi, some unknown in Brazil, such as Pakaraimaea (Dipterocarpaceae known from SE Venezuela and W Guyana), Pseudomonotes tropenbosii A.C.Londoño, E.Alvarez & Forero (Dipterocarpaceae, endemic to SE Colombia) and Quercus (Fagaceae, known only from Colombia in South America).
6V PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Currently, 19 families of Angiosperms are known to contain C4 species, representing approximately 50 distinct evolutionary lineages. Sixteen of these families are Eudicots, with Amaranthaceae being the eudicot clade with the highest number of C4 species approximatelly 1,400 spp. (Sage et al., American Journal of Botany, 2007).
Euphorbia subg. Chamaesyce (Euphorbiaceae) is the only taxonomic group below the genus level containing C3, C2, C4, and CAM photosynthetic pathways, with C2 occurring exclusively in E. acuta Engelm. from S USA and E. johnstoni Mayfield from Mexico (Sage et al., Journal of Experimental Botany, 2011).
6W OIL AND RESINS
IN BRAZIL
Clusia (Clusiaceae), Clusiella (Calophyllaceae), and Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae) — all belonging to Malpighiales — are the only known plant genera that offer resin as a floral reward for specialized bees that use it for nest construction (Alvim, Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2001).
UNKNOWN IN BRAZIL
Calceolaria (Calceolariaceae) from tropical America is among the largest oil-producing plant genera, offering non-volatile floral oils — a rare reward that attracts specialized solitary oil-collecting bees (Cosacov et al., American Journal of Botany, 2009).
UPDATES
31⋅01⋅2024 - updates among large fruits (at Rutaceae, Araliaceae), large leaves (Chrysobalanaceae) and odd leaves (at Araliaceae).
31⋅01⋅2024 - updates in mimic plants and in topic 'Herbs' (among Bignoniaceae).
31⋅01⋅2024 - inclusion of a notes about 'black flowers' at Petal color topic, and inclusion of reference among epiphyly.
29⋅12⋅2023 - notes about ballistochory in Poaceae (SEE).
25⋅12⋅2023 - updates in trees among Passiflora and Ipomoea, both for Almanaque Z/Flora World, and addition of a note about arborescent Aristolochia.
25⋅12⋅2023 - updates in herb nature or Crumenaria decumbens (Angios Bergianska), and about the huge size of Holoregmia viscida (SEE).
26⋅11⋅2023 - corrections on the largest members of Apiaceae in South America and several notes over Passiflora.
19⋅10⋅2023 - huge updates in carnivorous plants, mainly among Fleck & Jobson (Plants, 2023).
07⋅09⋅2023 - renamefor Platythelys pedicellata (Cogn.) Szlach. to Microchilus pedicellatus (Cogn.) E.C.Smidt & M.W.Chase (Orchidaceae).
06⋅08⋅2023 - updates in Thismia, and holomycotrophic numbers.
04⋅04⋅2023 - updates on symbiotic Gunnera, and several notes about parasitism.